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Abundant refractory sulfur in protoplanetary disks

T0 review · 3 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-14 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read This paper measures, for the first time, that (89 ± 8)% of sulfur in planet-forming disks is locked in refractory solids such as FeS, not in gas or ice.

desk verdict First real measurement of refractory sulfur in planet-forming disks, with a plausible 89% central value; the caveat is that the result shifts to 45±22% with a solar reference, so the headline number needs a systematic-error qualifier. read the letter →

arxiv 1908.05169 v2 pith:NUIIRE23 submitted 2019-08-14 astro-ph.EP

Mihkel Kama , Oliver Shorttle , Adam S. Jermyn , Colin P. Folsom , Kenji Furuya , Edwin A. Bergin , Catherine Walsh , Lindsay Keller This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.EP
keywords sulfurprotoplanetarydisksrefractoryfractiondusttrappingHerbigAe/Bestarsstellarphotosphereabundancessulfidemineralsplanetformation
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper reports the first measurement of the fraction of sulfur locked in solid, refractory form inside planet-forming disks. By comparing the surface compositions of 16 young disk-hosting stars with a reference sample of disk-free open cluster stars, and using the fact that early-type stars' photospheres record recently accreted disk material, the authors infer that (89 ± 8)% of elemental sulfur in the inner disk is refractory, with only about 11% in gas or ice. They also measure a lower refractory fraction for sodium, (35 ± 16)%, and find oxygen behaves almost entirely as a volatile, with fO = (2 ± 2)%. The result matters because sulfur's main reservoir in disks had previously escaped detection: gaseous molecules account for less than 1% of total sulfur, and the new measurement identifies the missing reservoir as refractory and consistent with sulfide minerals such as FeS.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing mechanism is the Contaminated A-stars Method (CAM): in stars more massive than about 1.4 M_sun, the radiative envelope mixes slowly, so the photosphere (only ~1e-10 M_sun) can be almost entirely replaced on timescales of days by disk accretion, making the stellar surface a direct sample of inner-disk material. Dust trapping at a radial pressure bump (e.g., planet-induced) removes large grains before accretion, so the refractory component of each element is scaled by a per-star depletion factor δd, while the volatile component accretes freely. The abundance of element X in accreted material is $(X/\mathrm{H})_{\rm disk} = [(1-f_X) + f_X \delta_d] \times (X/\mathrm{H})_{\rm ref}$, with f_X the refractory fraction; combining this with the photospheric mixing fraction fph and fitting fS and fNa globally with Bayesian Multinest sampling extracts the refractory fractions from the iron–sulfur correlation.

What would settle it

A direct ALMA measurement of gas-phase sulfur carriers (H2S, CS, SO) in the inner disk of a dust-trapping system that finds sulfur in gas and ice well above the paper's predicted 11% of total would falsify the refractory-dominated picture; alternatively, expanding the open cluster reference sample to more coeval clusters and recomputing fS, if the cluster mean sulfur abundance shifts by more than ~0.1 dex, the 89% central value would not survive.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central discovery is that sulfur in the terrestrial-planet-forming zone of protoplanetary disks is predominantly refractory: fS = (89 ± 8)%. The inference comes from the correlation between sulfur and iron abundances in accretion-contaminated photospheres of Herbig Ae/Be stars, using dust trapping at pressure bumps to fractionate the accreting material. Because the carrier must be far more refractory than water ice, the authors identify sulfide minerals, most plausibly FeS, as the main reservoir, with sulfur chains S_n playing at most a minor role. As a consistency check, imposing the condensation-model expectation fS < fNa leaves fS unchanged at 89% while shifting fNa to 97%, and an orthogonal distance regression fit using a solar reference gives fS = (75 ± 8)%. The result is stated as the first measurement of the refractory fraction of sulfur in protoplanetary disks.

Load-bearing premise

The result rests on the assumption that the disk-hosting stars and the young open cluster stars used as a reference have the same initial bulk composition; if the reference is replaced by solar abundances, the inferred refractory sulfur fraction drops from 89% to 45%.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • In the inner few to ten astronomical units around ~2–3 M_sun stars, almost all sulfur is available to be incorporated directly into rocky planetesimals, rather than being delivered later as ice.
  • Gas-phase and ice sulfur in the planet-forming zone is predicted to be at most (11 ± 8)% of the total, a concrete target for ALMA searches for H2S, CS, and SO.
  • The refractory carrier must survive temperatures well above 150 K, ruling out H2S, OCS, SO, and SO2 ices as main reservoirs and favouring FeS and related sulfide minerals.
  • In hot Jupiter atmospheres formed by core accretion of gas alone, little H2S is expected; significant H2S would point to late planetesimal accretion.
  • The solar-system pattern—volatile sulfur in cometary ices, sulfur in rocky meteorites as sulfides and chains—is a natural outcome of a general disk process rather than a local anomaly.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the 89% figure holds, models of prebiotic chemistry and habitable-zone volatile delivery should treat sulfur as a rock-derived element in the inner disk, with volcanic and impact processing, not ice sublimation, as its main pathway into atmospheres.
  • The same accretion-contamination technique could be extended to carbon, phosphorus, and chlorine, whose refractory fractions are poorly known; those elements' fX values would similarly be pinned down by correlations with iron in the same sample.
  • The large shift between open-cluster and solar reference compositions (89% vs 45%) implies the absolute value is sensitive to Galactic chemical evolution corrections; applying an age- and position-matched chemical evolution model could tighten or move the central value.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 4 minor

Summary. The paper applies the contaminated A-star method (CAM) to photospheric abundance measurements of 16 young disk-hosting stars, using young open cluster stars as the reference initial composition, and performs Bayesian inference with the Multinest sampler to infer the refractory fractions fS, fNa, fO, and fZn in protoplanetary disks. The main result is that 89 ± 8 % of sulfur is refractory, with a minority in gas/ice; sodium is inferred at 35 ± 16 % refractory, oxygen at 2 ± 2 %, while a solar-reference fit gives fS = 45 ± 22 %. The paper interprets the refractory sulfur as sulfide minerals such as FeS and predicts a gas-plus-ice sulfur fraction of at most 11 ± 8 % in the inner disk. Synthetic-data tests in Appendix B support the inference machinery itself.

Significance. If the central value is robust, this is the first quantitative measurement of the refractory fraction of sulfur in protoplanetary disks, with direct implications for planetesimal composition, disk chemistry, and the sulfur budget of the terrestrial-planet-forming zone. The method is interesting and the Bayesian machinery is carefully tested on synthetic data, which is a genuine strength. However, the headline number depends strongly on the adopted stellar reference composition, and the paper does not yet quantify this systematic uncertainty; the gap between the open-cluster and solar-reference results is larger than the quoted statistical errors. The significance of the paper therefore stands or falls on whether the reference-composition choice can be made robust.

major comments (3)
  1. [Section 2.4 and Section 3, Table 1] The reference-composition choice is the main load-bearing assumption. The open-cluster sulfur reference is log(S/H) = -4.33 ± 0.28, which is 0.55 dex above the solar value of -4.88, and all six usable sulfur detections in the disk-host sample lie at or below -4.66. The model therefore interprets these stars as strongly sulfur-depleted, driving fS to 89 ± 8 %; replacing the reference with the solar composition changes the result to 45 ± 22 %, a shift of more than 2 sigma. The paper argues that the open-cluster reference is more appropriate, but it does not quantify the systematic uncertainty associated with this choice. The authors should provide a systematic error budget, repeat the fit with several independent reference populations, or otherwise demonstrate that the open-cluster reference is unbiased for these particular disk-hosting stars.
  2. [Section 3] The Bayesian evidence comparison used to prefer the open-cluster reference is not decisive as presented. The two fits are based on different numbers of elements and observations because the solar-reference fit additionally includes zinc, and the quantity reported as "log L" is not defined as either the log-evidence or the log-likelihood. The paper acknowledges that the evidence difference is affected by the differing observation count, but then dismisses this effect as negligible without a quantitative calculation. A fair comparison would require identical datasets with and without the extra element, or a predictive check such as cross-validation on held-out abundances.
  3. [Section 3 and Section 2.4] The text states that "self-consistent posteriors on the reference composition" make the Multinest fit superior, implying that the reference abundances are free parameters in the main fit. However, Section 2.4 only specifies priors for fS, fNa, δd, and fph; it does not state the prior on the reference composition or show the resulting posterior for S_ref. If the data pull S_ref away from the open-cluster mean, the central fS value may be biased in a way that the current uncertainty statement does not capture. The authors should report the posterior on the reference abundances and test how fS changes when the reference prior is widened or shifted.
minor comments (4)
  1. [Section 2.4] There is a typo in the sentence defining δd: "the level of change of the refactory dust mass" should read "refractory dust mass".
  2. [Figure 1 caption] The caption says "Each stage is normalised to its own standard" and the figure is ordered from right to left, which is confusing because the text is read left to right; explicitly labeling each bar group with its normalization and adding left-to-right ordering would improve clarity.
  3. [Section 2.4] The description of the fph prior says the Gaussian is cut off at three standard deviations or at fph ≤ 1, but it is not stated whether the cut is applied before or after the log-normal transformation and how the normalization is adjusted; please clarify.
  4. [Appendix B] The synthetic-data test validates the inference machinery using a solar-like reference, but it does not test the more dangerous scenario in which the assumed reference is offset from the true initial composition by a few tenths of dex; such a test would be directly relevant to the main result.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No circularity: the refractory sulfur fraction is inferred from independent open-cluster reference abundances through a forward model, with self-citations that are not load-bearing for the central value.

full rationale

Walk-through of the derivation chain: Section 2.4 defines (X/H)_ref as the mean abundance of young open cluster stars (Fossati et al. 2011; Martin et al. 2017), which is external to the disk-host stars whose sulfur depletion is being measured. Table 1 lists this reference independently of the sample-star abundances. Equations (1)-(3) are forward models: for a fixed reference, observed stellar abundances, and photospheric contamination fraction fph, the free parameters fS, fZn, delta_d, and fph are fitted; fS is not an input and no equation defines the reference in terms of fS or vice versa. The reported fS = (89 +/- 8)% is therefore a fitted parameter, not a quantity derived from itself. The statement that <=(11 +/- 8)% of sulfur remains in gas and ice is simply the arithmetic complement 1 - fS, but the paper does not use that complement as evidence for fS, so it is a transparent derived consequence rather than a circular step. The method relies on self-citations (CAM; Kama et al. 2015; Jermyn & Kama 2018), and fph comes from the authors' prior work, but the paper explicitly checks that assuming fph = 1 gives similar results, so this self-citation is not load-bearing for the central value. The reference-composition sensitivity (fS = 89% with the open-cluster reference versus 45% with the solar reference) is disclosed by the authors and is a systematic/correctness concern, not a circularity: the solar fit is a different external input choice, not the fitted result fed back as an input. No uniqueness theorem or ansatz is imported from the authors' prior work to force the result, and Appendix B validates the inference on synthetic data generated from Equation (2), showing that the fitting procedure recovers known input fX values. Under the required quote-and-reduction standard, no circular step is exhibited.

Assumptions & free parameters 6 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The analysis postulates no new physical entities. Its free parameters are refractory fractions and per-star depletion/contamination factors. The chain of assumptions links stellar photospheric composition to inner-disk solid content.

free parameters (6)
  • f_S (refractory fraction of sulfur) = 0.89 ± 0.08 (open cluster reference); 0.45 ± 0.22 (solar reference)
    Global free parameter in the Bayesian fit; this is the central result.
  • f_Na (refractory fraction of sodium) = 0.35 ± 0.16 (field star reference); 0.77 ± 0.18 (solar reference)
    Global free parameter; poorly constrained and strongly dependent on priors.
  • f_O (refractory fraction of oxygen) = 0.02 ± 0.02
    Global free parameter; surprisingly low compared to condensation models.
  • f_Zn (refractory fraction of zinc) = 0.52 ± 0.34 (solar reference)
    Only fitted with solar reference; not in the main analysis.
  • delta_d (dust depletion factor per star)
    Per-star nuisance parameter scaling the refractory component; log-uniform prior 1e-3 to 1e3.
  • f_ph (photospheric contamination fraction per star)
    Per-star nuisance parameter; log-normal prior centered on Jermyn & Kama (2018) values; results insensitive to setting f_ph=1.
assumptions (4)
  • domain assumption Stars more massive than 1.4 Msun have radiative envelopes where mixing is dominated by slow diffusion, so the photosphere can be replaced by accreted material on short timescales.
    Basis of the CAM method; cited to Jermyn & Kama 2018.
  • domain assumption The accretion stream composition directly samples the total elemental composition of the inner disk.
    Stated in Section 2.4 before Equation 1.
  • domain assumption Dust depletion (delta_d) affects the refractory component of all elements equally.
    Needed to cancel delta_d in Equation 3.
  • domain assumption The open cluster stars have the same bulk composition as the disk-hosting stars.
    Central to the reference composition; if false, fS changes to 45%.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Abundant refractory sulfur in protoplanetary disks." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/NUIIRE23

@misc{pith2026190805169,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Abundant refractory sulfur in protoplanetary disks},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/NUIIRE23}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:1908.05169}
}
abstract

Sulfur is one of the most abundant elements in the Universe, with important roles in astro-, geo-, and biochemistry. Its main reservoirs in planet-forming disks have previously eluded detection: gaseous molecules only account for $<1\,$\% of total elemental sulfur, with the rest likely in either ices or refractory minerals. Mechanisms such as giant planets can filter out dust from gas accreting onto disk-hosting stars. For stars above 1.4 solar masses, this leaves a chemical signature on the stellar photosphere that can be used to determine the fraction of each element that is locked in dust. Here, we present an application of this method to sulfur, zinc, and sodium. We analyse the accretion-contaminated photospheres of a sample of young stars and find $(89\pm8)\,$\% of elemental sulfur is in refractory form in their disks. The main carrier is much more refractory than water ice, consistent with sulfide minerals such as FeS.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 1908.05169 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Fractional importance of volatile (blue) and refractory (red) reservoirs of sulfur, as measured in environments sampling different stages of the star and planet formation process (G¨ansicke et al. 2012; Xu et al. 2013, 2017; Wasson & Kallemeyn 1988; Calmonte et al. 2016; Anderson et al. 2013; Dutrey et al. 1997, 2011; Wakelam et al. 2004; Fuente et al. 2010; Mart´ın-Dom´enech et al. 2016; Jenkins 2009). The normaliz… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Accretion of gas, ice, and dust grains from a disk onto a young star. While gas and smaller dust grains flow freely towards the star, a radial gas pressure bump, potentially induced by a planet, filters away the larger dust grains. This prevents some dust from moving inwards and accreting, depriving material reaching the star of refractory elements. The chemical signature is visible in the photosphere of stars more … view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Abundance of sulfur (left-hand panel), oxygen (middle), and titanium (right-hand) versus iron, normalised to hydrogen. For disk-hosting stars, the inferred composition of inner disk material is shown (dark purple). Stars with poorly quantified uncertainties were excluded (light purple, no errorbars shown). The reference composition derived from open cluster data is defined to lie at the intersection of the 100 % vol… view at source ↗

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Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score. Full citation record

  1. Ammonium salt formation and abundance in protoplanetary disks

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    In a disk model, cosmic-ray-driven chemistry converts gas-phase N2 and CO into ammonium salts and CO2 ice in the inner midplane, making ammonium cyanate and ammonium hydrosulfide the dominant N and S carriers inside ~50 au.

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