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Critical Metallicity of Cool Supergiant Formation. I. Effects on Stellar Mass Loss and Feedback
Astrophysics of Galaxies · Submitted 18 Oct 2022
abstract compiled · 2026-09-23 · no language-model review
The authors' main claim Our results reveal the existence of a critical metallicity $Z_{\rm{c}}$ at $Z \sim 10^{-3}$, where the mass loss exhibits a dramatic jump.
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The abstract, sentence by sentence
This paper systematically studies the relation between metallicity and mass loss of massive stars. We perform one-dimensional stellar evolution simulations and build a grid of $\sim$2000 models with initial masses ranging between 11 and 60 $M_{\odot}$ and absolute metallicities $Z$ between 0.00001 and 0.02. Steady-state winds, comprising hot main-sequence winds and cool supergiant winds, are the main drivers of the mass loss of massive stars in our models. We calculate the total mass loss over the stellar lifetime for each model. Our results reveal the existence of a critical metallicity $Z_{\rm{c}}$ at $Z \sim 10^{-3}$, where the mass loss exhibits a dramatic jump. If $Z>Z_{\rm{c}}$, massive stars tend to evolve into cool supergiants, and a robust cool wind is operational. In contrast, if $Z<Z_{\rm{c}}$, massive stars usually remain as blue supergiants, wherein the cool wind is not activated and the mass loss is generally weak. Moreover, we calculate the wind feedback in a $10^5$ $M_{\odot}$ star cluster with the Salpeter initial mass function. The kinetic energy released by winds does not exhibit any significant transition at $Z_{\rm{c}}$ because the wind velocity of a cool supergiant wind is low and contributes little to the kinetic energy. The effects of critical metallicity provide implications for the fates of metal-poor stars in the early universe.
background contribution method result interpretation main claim
| # | sentence | role | the authors' own work | states the main conclusion | strength |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| s0 | This paper systematically studies the relation between metallicity and mass loss of massive stars. | contribution 0.95 | 0.87 | 0.04 | asserted 0.92 |
| s1 | We perform one-dimensional stellar evolution simulations and build a grid of $\sim$2000 models with initial masses ranging between 11 and 60 $M_{\odot}$ and absolute metallicities $Z$ between 0.00001 and 0.02. | method 0.99 | 0.97 | 0.02 | asserted 0.98 |
| s2 | Steady-state winds, comprising hot main-sequence winds and cool supergiant winds, are the main drivers of the mass loss of massive stars in our models. | background 0.47 | 0.49 | 0.03 | asserted 1.00 |
| s3 | We calculate the total mass loss over the stellar lifetime for each model. | method 0.90 | 0.97 | 0.02 | asserted 0.99 |
| s4 | Our results reveal the existence of a critical metallicity $Z_{\rm{c}}$ at $Z \sim 10^{-3}$, where the mass loss exhibits a dramatic jump. | result 1.00 | 0.97 | 0.79 | asserted 1.00 |
| s5 | If $Z>Z_{\rm{c}}$, massive stars tend to evolve into cool supergiants, and a robust cool wind is operational. | result 0.91 | 0.89 | 0.23 | asserted 0.57 |
| s6 | In contrast, if $Z<Z_{\rm{c}}$, massive stars usually remain as blue supergiants, wherein the cool wind is not activated and the mass loss is generally weak. | result 0.98 | 0.91 | 0.17 | asserted 0.86 |
| s7 | Moreover, we calculate the wind feedback in a $10^5$ $M_{\odot}$ star cluster with the Salpeter initial mass function. | method 0.59 | 0.96 | 0.02 | asserted 0.99 |
| s8 | The kinetic energy released by winds does not exhibit any significant transition at $Z_{\rm{c}}$ because the wind velocity of a cool supergiant wind is low and contributes little to the kinetic energy. | result 0.94 | 0.95 | 0.07 | asserted 1.00 |
| s9 | The effects of critical metallicity provide implications for the fates of metal-poor stars in the early universe. | interpretation 1.00 | 0.29 | 0.09 | hedged possibility 0.51 |
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Original abstract
This paper systematically studies the relation between metallicity and mass loss of massive stars. We perform one-dimensional stellar evolution simulations and build a grid of $\sim$2000 models with initial masses ranging between 11 and 60 $M_{\odot}$ and absolute metallicities $Z$ between 0.00001 and 0.02. Steady-state winds, comprising hot main-sequence winds and cool supergiant winds, are the main drivers of the mass loss of massive stars in our models. We calculate the total mass loss over the stellar lifetime for each model. Our results reveal the existence of a critical metallicity $Z_{\rm{c}}$ at $Z \sim 10^{-3}$, where the mass loss exhibits a dramatic jump. If $Z>Z_{\rm{c}}$, massive stars tend to evolve into cool supergiants, and a robust cool wind is operational. In contrast, if $Z<Z_{\rm{c}}$, massive stars usually remain as blue supergiants, wherein the cool wind is not activated and the mass loss is generally weak. Moreover, we calculate the wind feedback in a $10^5$ $M_{\odot}$ star cluster with the Salpeter initial mass function. The kinetic energy released by winds does not exhibit any significant transition at $Z_{\rm{c}}$ because the wind velocity of a cool supergiant wind is low and contributes little to the kinetic energy. The effects of critical metallicity provide implications for the fates of metal-poor stars in the early universe.
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References
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Compares with 1 paper
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We compare our mass-loss rates and energy injection rates with those adopted by the FIRE-3 cosmological simulations [ref] , which are shown by the blue dash lines in Figure [ref].
FIRE-3: Updated Stellar Evolution Models, Yields, & Microphysics and Fitting Functions for Applications in Galaxy Simulations · Wind Feedback from a Star Cluster · 1.00
Cites as background 2 papers
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Main-sequence OB stars can produce hot winds that are driven by the radiation pressure of the line emission [ref] , and red supergiants (RSGs) produce even stronger cool winds that are driven by the dust continuum [ref] .
Theory and Diagnostics of Hot Star Mass Loss · Introduction · 0.95
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More recently, some new prescriptions have been proposed for hot winds [ref] and cool winds [ref] .
New predictions for radiation-driven, steady-state mass-loss and wind-momentum from hot, massive stars III. Updated mass-loss rates for stellar evolution · Uncertainties from mass-loss prescriptions · 0.95
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