Deciphering Urban Morphogenesis: A Morphospace Approach

Caio Cacholas; Daniel Lenz; Dries Daems; Fabiano Ribeiro; Howard Davis; Vini Netto

REVIEW 3 major objections 5 minor 15 references

Deciphering Urban Morphogenesis: A Morphospace Approach

T0 review · 3 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-12 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗ Review JSON

Pith's one-line read Cities, whether planned or informal, ancient or contemporary, share a narrow morphological signature: a specific region of a three-axis space defined by density, permeability, and information, distinct from non-urban settlements.

desk verdict A promising morphospace framework, but the permeability normalization is internally inconsistent and the headline cluster claim is not credible as written. read the letter →

arxiv 2411.13771 v2 pith:S6EDE2U4 submitted 2024-11-21 cs.CY cs.SIphysics.soc-ph

Vini Netto , Caio Cacholas , Dries Daems , Fabiano Ribeiro , Howard Davis , Daniel Lenz This is my paper · ORCID

classification cs.CYcs.SIphysics.soc-ph

keywords urbanmorphogenesismorphospacedensitypermeabilityspatialinformationdivisionoflabourstructure-seekinggrowthnon-ergodicdevelopment

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper argues that cities, across eras and cultures, are spatial solutions that balance three measurable properties: density (how much of the ground is built), permeability (how easily open space lets people move), and information (regularity and long-range order in the built pattern). It constructs a three-axis morphospace, the space of all possible settlement configurations, and measures these properties in 42 contemporary cities, 8 proto-urban settlements, one hunter-gatherer village, and 5 theoretical layouts. Contemporary cities concentrate in a narrow region of this cube, while non-urban and proto-urban settlements sit at very low density and high permeability. If the paper is right, there is a quantitative, culture-independent way to tell a city from other settlements, and urban emergence can be studied as a trajectory through the space of possible forms.

What carries the argument

The central object is a three-dimensional morphospace whose axes are normalized measures: density $D_e = BF_c/CT$, the ratio of built-form cells to total cells; permeability $iPe = 1 - Pe/P_{emax}$, where $Pe = \sum_i P_i A_i / A_o$ is an area-weighted perimeter of blocks relative to open space; and information $I = 1 - nH$, where $nH$ is the Shannon entropy of 16-cell configurations normalized by its random maximum, counted only at interfaces between built form and open space. The supporting mechanism is structure-seeking growth: morphogenesis is path-dependent and non-ergodic, unlike a gas exploring all states, so configurations are retained when they simultaneously allow density and mobility. Information and permeability together bridge the local urban block to city-scale street networks by establishing long-range correlations in the built pattern.

What would settle it

Compute the three measures for a larger and more diverse set of undisputed cities and non-urban aggregated villages; the central claim fails if a class of functioning cities lies outside the paper's observed ranges (density 0.35–0.6, permeability 0.25–0.75, information 0.2–0.4), or if non-urban settlements fall inside that zone. A single clearly urban settlement far outside the narrow cluster would also settle the question.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

On the paper's own terms, the discovery is that urban morphogenesis can be represented as a non-ergodic trajectory through a morphospace spanned by density, permeability, and information, and that actual cities occupy a well-defined narrow region of that space (Section 7, Figure 8). The measurements put most urban sections at densities between 0.35 and 0.6, permeabilities between 0.25 and 0.75, and information levels between 0.2 and 0.4; some cities reach higher information through ordered planning, and some reach lower density or permeability, but they stay inside the broad urban zone. Proto-urban Maya settlements and the Bororo village form a separate cluster with very low density and high permeability, and the theoretical configurations (random, tree-like, perfectly ordered, dispersed) fall outside the urban region. The paper takes this as evidence that cities are configurations selected to balance proximity and mobility under a growing division of labour, and it states that this hypothesis withstood the empirical data without being falsified.

Load-bearing premise

The framework assumes that density, permeability, and information capture every morphological difference that matters for distinguishing urban from non-urban settlements; if a fourth equally important dimension exists, the observed urban cluster could be an artifact of the chosen axes.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

The morphospace offers a quantitative criterion for urbanness: a settlement whose measured position falls in the dense, mid-permeability, mid-information cluster rather than in the low-density, high-permeability non-urban region.
Because non-urban, proto-urban, and urban settlements separate into different regions, transitions between settlement types can be studied as trajectories inside the same cube.
Theoretical layouts such as random, tree-like, perfectly ordered, and dispersed configurations fall outside the viable urban zone, explaining why cities are neither fully random nor fully ordered.
The narrowness of the urban zone supports the paper's invitation to hypothesize a minimum threshold of density, permeability, and long-range spatial correlation for a settlement to function as a city.
Top-down planned and informally grown cities converge on the same region, suggesting the balance of density, permeability, and information holds across different modes of governance and production.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

Going beyond the paper, if the narrow urban cluster holds in larger samples, urban morphology looks convergent: independent cultures may arrive at similar spatial solutions because interaction and movement impose similar selective constraints.
A direct testable extension is to apply the same three measures to time-stamped archaeological sequences and ask whether settlements move toward the cluster before or after other markers of urbanism, such as writing, craft specialization, or monumental architecture, appear.
The information axis depends on a 16-cell counting window, so varying that window could reveal whether the urban cluster shifts or splits; that would indicate how much of the observed pattern is measurement scale rather than settlement biology.
The framework suggests a generative experiment: start with low-density, high-permeability configurations, apply selection for density plus mobility, and see whether the simulated survivors occupy the same narrow region as observed cities.

Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

The one thing you should know: the central empirical claim—that contemporary cities cluster in a narrow midrange region of density–permeability–information morphospace—is not supported by the stated measurement procedure. The permeability normalization in §5.1 is internally inconsistent: Pemax is defined as a single built cell, which gives a near-minimum Pe, not a maximum. For a typical urban grid, nPe exceeds 1 and iPe goes negative, yet the paper reports iPe values between 0.25 and 0.75. Either the formula is misdescribed or the numbers are not produced by it. Without code or data, the reader cannot verify.

That said, the paper has real merits. The morphospace framework—borrowed from biology—is a fresh way to think about urban form, and the conceptual link to division of labour and non-ergodic trajectories is genuinely interesting. The review of urban morphogenesis literature is solid and well-contextualized. If the measurement issue is fixable, the framework could be a useful contribution.

The other soft spots are also significant: the sample is only 42 hand-selected city sections, one hunter-gatherer settlement, and eight proto-urban sites, with no statistical test or error analysis. The claim that the hypothesis 'has withstood the empirical data without being falsified' is meaningless without a specified falsification criterion. And the assertion that density, permeability, and information are sufficient to describe any configuration is never proven—other axes might change the morphospace entirely.

In short, the conceptual core is worth reading, but the empirical section is not credible as written. I'd send it to peer review because the framework matters and the authors might fix the problems, but I would not accept it in current form. If the permeability normalization is not a typo, the cluster result is likely an artifact.

Referee Report

3 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper proposes a morphospace framework for urban morphogenesis, using three dimensions—density, permeability, and information—to distinguish contemporary cities from non-urban and proto-urban settlements. It argues that cities emerge as solutions balancing these properties, and presents an empirical analysis of 42 contemporary city sections, 8 proto-urban settlements, and 1 hunter-gatherer settlement, along with theoretical configurations, claiming that cities cluster in a narrow region of this morphospace. The paper is a conceptual-methodological contribution that integrates urban theory, biology, and archaeology, and it concludes that the proposed hypothesis has withstood the empirical data without being falsified.

Significance. If the cluster claim holds, the framework would provide a quantitative way to distinguish cities from other settlements and support a universal morphological signature of urbanism. The paper's interdisciplinary synthesis and the use of information-theoretic measures are original and potentially influential. However, the empirical evidence is currently not compelling: the sample is small and hand-selected, no statistical tests are provided, and the permeability normalization appears mathematically inconsistent. With corrected measurement and validated results, the contribution could be significant for urban morphology and comparative archaeology, but as it stands the central empirical claim is not reliably supported.

major comments (3)

[§6 and §7] The normalization of permeability is internally inconsistent. Equation (3) divides Pe by Pemax, which the text defines as 'for simplicity, given by a distribution with a single built form cell over an open cellular field.' For a single built cell on the 3000×3000 grid, P=4, A=1, and Ao≈9×10^6, so Pe≈4.4×10^-7. Any configuration with more built cells yields a substantially larger Pe; for example, a single 100×100 block gives Pe≈0.44, about a million times larger. Thus Pemax as defined is close to the minimum of the measure, not the maximum. Consequently, nPe would exceed 1 and iPe would be negative for typical urban configurations, contradicting the reported city values between 0.25 and 0.75 in §6. This means the permeability axis is miscalibrated and the positions of all settlements in Figure 8c–d are suspect, so the claimed concentration of contemporary cities could be an artifact of the erroneous normalization. The authors must either supply a correct maximum-based normalization (or an alternative dimensionless permeability measure) and recalculate the reported coordinates, or provide the underlying data and code to demonstrate that the reported iPe values are reproducible.
[§6 and §7] The empirical claim of a 'well-defined region' for cities rests on 42 hand-selected contemporary city sections, 8 proto-urban settlements, and 1 hunter-gatherer settlement, with no statistical test or error analysis. The paper states in §7 that the hypothesis 'has withstood the empirical data without being falsified' but never specifies a falsification criterion. The authors should provide formal cluster-separation measures (e.g., silhouette analysis, permutation tests) and report uncertainties in the measured properties; otherwise, the visual impression of clustering in Figure 8 cannot be distinguished from chance or from deliberate sample selection.
[§4 and §7.3] The assertion that density, permeability, and information are 'sufficient for describing the differences between any configuration' is asserted without proof or citation. If other morphological dimensions are equally important, the morphospace and the resulting city cluster could be artifacts of the chosen axes. The authors should either justify the sufficiency claim with a formal argument or explicitly acknowledge it as an untested assumption and soften the wording accordingly.

minor comments (5)

[Fig. 7] The textual references to Figure 7 do not consistently match the caption subfigure labels; the text refers to 'Figure 7d' for density measurement while the caption describes (d) as information computation. Please harmonize the subfigure letters between text and caption.
[References] References 37 and 38 list the same title ('Entropy and the City...'), one as an arXiv preprint and one as forthcoming; please disambiguate or cite only once.
[§5.1] The statement that 'Rotation in built form does not affect results' is made without demonstration; either provide a sensitivity test or remove the claim.
[Fig. 8] In Figure 8, dot sizes represent population sizes, but the legend does not explain the scale or values; please add a legend or caption note.
[Equations] Equations (1)–(7) are referred to in the text but appear as unnumbered displays; adding equation numbers would improve readability.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the empirical cluster claim is measured, not derived from the definitions of the morphospace axes.

full rationale

The paper presents a conceptual framework and an empirical measurement study rather than a formal derivation. Density, permeability, and information are defined by explicit formulas (Eqs. 1–7 in Sec. 5.1) and applied to independently chosen settlements; no parameter is fitted to the city/non-city labels, and the reported concentration of contemporary cities in Fig. 8 is an observed outcome that could in principle have been otherwise. The self-citations for the entropy-based information measure (Brigatti et al., 2022; Netto et al., 2023) are not load-bearing because the Shannon entropy formula is standard and is restated in the paper. Section 4's assertion that the three properties are sufficient for describing all configurations is an unproven assumption and a genuine limitation, but it is not a circular step: the empirical claims do not presuppose that sufficiency. The permeability normalization in Eqs. 3–4 also raises a serious measurement-validity concern: Pemax is described as a single built cell over an open field, which appears to give a near-minimum rather than maximum Pe, so the reported iPe values may be miscalibrated; however, this is an internal-consistency and reproducibility problem, not a reduction of the conclusion to its inputs. No uniqueness theorem, ansatz-by-citation, or fitted-prediction pattern is present. The absence of released code or data compounds the reproducibility risk but does not change the circularity finding.

Assumptions & free parameters 3 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The paper contributes a framework but imports several unproven premises: the sufficiency of the three axes, the interpretation of Shannon entropy as spatial information relevant to navigation, and the non-ergodicity of settlement morphogenesis. No parameters are fitted to data, but methodological constants (window size, exclusion rule, sampled area) are chosen by hand and affect the results.

free parameters (3)

window size n for information measurement = 16
Chosen by the authors to count cellular configurations; a different window size would change the entropy estimate and hence the position of settlements in morphospace (Section 5.1).
exclusion of homogeneous 16-cell blocks = N/A
The algorithm ignores blocks with all open or all built cells to minimize density effects; this choice directly shapes the information measure (Section 5.1c).
sampled urban section area = 9,000,000 m^2
Used for all contemporary cities; the area and grid resolution (3000 by 3000 cells) affect density and correlation estimates (Section 5.1).

assumptions (4)

domain assumption Density, permeability, and information are sufficient to describe the differences between any spatial configuration.
Section 4 states this sufficiency claim without proof; the entire morphospace framework depends on it.
domain assumption Shannon entropy of local 16-cell configurations approximates the information that supports navigation and structure in settlements.
Section 5.1 introduces this by analogy to navigation and physical information; no validation connects this measure to human wayfinding.
domain assumption Spatial morphogenesis of settlements is non-ergodic, so selection is required.
Section 4 asserts this based on materiality and path dependence; it is a premise for the selection narrative, not a proven result.
domain assumption Division of labour drives urbanisation.
Section 3 hypothesizes this link based on literature; the empirical part of the paper does not test it.

how reviews work

0 comments

Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Deciphering Urban Morphogenesis: A Morphospace Approach." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/S6EDE2U4

@misc{pith2026241113771,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Deciphering Urban Morphogenesis: A Morphospace Approach},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/S6EDE2U4}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2411.13771}
}

read the original abstract

Cities emerged independently across different world regions and historical periods, raising fundamental questions: How did the first urban settlements develop? What social and spatial conditions enabled their emergence? Are these processes universal or context-dependent? Moreover, what distinguishes cities from other human settlements? This paper investigates the drivers behind the creation of cities through a hybrid approach that integrates urban theory, the biological concept of morphospace (the space of all possible configurations), and archaeological evidence. It explores the transition from sedentary hunter-gatherer communities to urban societies, highlighting fundamental forces converging to produce increasingly complex divisions of labour as a central driver of urbanization. Morphogenesis is conceptualized as a trajectory through morphospace, governed by structure-seeking selection processes that balance density, permeability, and information as critical dimensions. The study highlights the non-ergodic nature of urban morphogenesis, where configurations are progressively selected based on their fitness to support the diversifying interactions between mutually dependent agents. The morphospace framework effectively distinguishes between theoretical spatial configurations, non-urban and proto-urban settlements, and contemporary cities. This analysis supports the proposition that cities emerge and evolve as solutions balancing density, permeability, and informational organization, enabling them to support increasingly complex societal functions.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2411.13771 by the authors.

**Figure 1.** Approaches to urban morphogenesis: (a) Dendritic cellular growth based on diffusionlimited aggregation (DLA, Batty and Longley, 1989; Bourke, 2023). (b) Cellular growth based on built-form adjacency, continuity of open cells and restrictions on random processes (RRP) (Hillier and Hanson, 1984). (c) Fit between context and form (Alexander, 1964). Urban structure can also be conceptualised regarding restrictions on a… view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Social forces and material conditions: in scenarios where both density and mobility are expected to increase, as in situations of growing populations of mutually-dependent specialists, both conditions can easily be conflicting. 4. From all possible forms to urban form: Morphogenesis as a trajectory across morphospace Different spatial cultures managed to solve the trend of conflict between the increasing need for … view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Illustrating the spatial diversity of human settlements: (a) Kostienki I; Prepottery Neolithic huts from Level II of Nahal Oren, Israel (ca. 8000-6000 BCE) and Çayönü, Near Eastern pre-pottery Neolithic (8000-6000 BCE). (b) Kuikuro tribe, Alto Xingu (contemporary Amazon, Brazil). (c) Çatal Hüyük, Southern Anatolia, present-day Türkiye (7500-6400 BCE). (d) Gadhames, pre-Roman oasis, present-day Libya (4000 BCE). (e… view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (5 more)

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Raup's morphospace for gastropod shells (Raup, 1966). What would the morphospace of human settlements look like? It should map all possible configurations and allow us to spot the differences between different settlements, from hunter-gatherers' settlements to cities.…

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: Walking in configuration space: a schematic illustration depicting the transition from the space of all possible bidimensional configurations (morphospace 1) to the subset of configurations that can support human settlements (morphospace 2) and further to the subset p…

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: (a) Two different cell distributions: a random, high-entropy distribution where cell positions find no pattern as shown by the blue curves, implying that it would be hard to predict where the next cell would occur; and a low entropy, clustered distribution of cells wi…

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: Method: (a) Urban footprints of complete cities. (b) Permeability measurement in cities is based on urban blocks limits (Open Street Maps). (c) Information and density measurement is based on building footprints (Google Maps). (d) Information is computed as the algori…

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Configurations in morphospace: (a) Location of real settlements in our sample. Colours show amounts of information found by our method in cellular configurations of built form, from blue (low) to red (high). (b) Building footprint distributions in urban and nonurban s…

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

15 extracted references · 12 canonical work pages

[1]

1.Adams, R. M. (1981). Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates. Univ of Chicago Pr. 2.Alexander, C. (1964). Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- versity Press. 3.Alexander, C. (1966). A City is Not a Tree. Design. London: Council of Industrial De- sign,

work page 1981
[2]

https://doi.org/10.1371/jour - nal.pone.0087902 40.Pafka, E., & Dovey, K. (2017). Permeability and interface catchment: measuring and mapping walkable access. Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 10(2), 150-162. 41.Panerai, P., Castex, J., Depaule, J. C., & Samuels, I. (2004). Urban forms: the death and life...

doi:10.1371/jour 2017
[3]

https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1469605305057570 43.Raimbault, J. (2018). Calibration of a density-based model of urban morphogenesis. PloS one, 13(9), e0203516. 44.Raup, D. M. (1966). Geometric analysis of shell coiling: general problems. Journal of Paleontology 40, 1178–1190. 45.Ribeiro, F. L., Zhang, P., Gao, L., & Rybski, D. (2024). How buildings change the ...

work page Pith review arXiv 2018
[4]

Determinants of Urban Growth in Pre-Industrial Societies,

53.Trigger, B. G. (1972). “Determinants of Urban Growth in Pre-Industrial Societies,” in Man, Settlement, and Urbanism, eds P. J. Ucko, R. Tringham, and G. W. Dimbleby (Cambridge: Schenkman), 575–599. 54.United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2023). Total and urban population. UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics. Retrieved October 16, 2024...

work page 1972
[6]

https://doi.org/10.3389/fdigh.2019.00012 50.Solich, M., & Bradtmöller, M. (2017). Socioeconomic complexity and the resilience of hunter-gatherer societies. Quaternary International, 446(Supplement C), Article Supple- ment C. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.064 51.Southall, A. W. (1973). Urban anthropology: Cross-cultural studies of urbanization. ...

arXiv 2017
[8]

(1969) The economy of cities

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-017-9332-4 30.Jacobs, J. (1969) The economy of cities. Vintage, New York. 31.Kamalipour, H., & Iranmanesh, A. (2021). Morphogenesis of emerging settlements: Mapping incremental urbanism. Land, 10(1),

work page doi:10.1007/s10816-017-9332-4 1969
[15]

56.Ur, J. (2014). Households and the Emergence of Cities in Ancient Mesopotamia. Cam- bridge Archaeological Journal, 24(2), 249–268. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S095977431400047X

work page 2014
[89]

32.Kaše, V ., Heřmánková, P., & Sobotková, A. (2022). Division of labor, specialization and diversity in the ancient Roman cities: A quantitative approach to Latin epigraphy. PLOS ONE, 17(6), e0269869. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269869 33.Lambert, P. M. (2002). The Archaeology of War: A North American Perspective. Journal of Archaeological Rese...

arXiv 2022

Show all 15 references

[95]

M., Brigatti, E., & Cacholas, C

20 36.Netto, V . M., Brigatti, E., & Cacholas, C. (2023). From urban form to information: Cel- lular configurations in different spatial cultures. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 50(1), 146-161. 37.Netto, V . M., Peres, O., & Cacholas, C. (2024). ...

2023 arXiv
[206]

4.Alexander, C. (2002). The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature or the Universe. V .2 The Process of Creating Life. Berkeley, CA: The Center for Environmental Structure. 5.Alexander, C. (2003). New Concepts in Complexity Theory: Arising from Studies...

2002
[1984]

Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press

The Social Logic of Space. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press. 29.Hoffecker, J. F., & Hoffecker, I. T. (2018). The Structural and Functional Complexity of Hunter-Gatherer Technology. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 25(1), Arti- cle

2018
[1989]

Environment and Planning A 21(11), 1447–1472

Urban Growth and Form: Scaling, Fractal Geometry, and Diffusion-limited Aggregation. Environment and Planning A 21(11), 1447–1472. 10.Bettencourt, L., Samaniego, H. & Youn, H. (2014) Professional diversity and the pro- ductivity of cities. Sci Rep 4,

2014
[2010]

Antiquity 84, 351–62

Administrators’ bread: an experiment-based reassessment of the func- tional and cultural role of Uruk bevel-rim bowl. Antiquity 84, 351–62. 26.Hanson, J. W., Ortman, S. G., & Lobo, J. (2017). Urbanism and the division of labour in the Roman Empire. Journal of the Royal Society...

2017
[2014]

6.Arthur, B. (1994). Increasing Returns and Path Dependence in the Economy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 7.Bairoch, P. (1991). Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present (C. Braider, Trans.; Reprint edition). University of Chicago Pres...

1994
[5393]

https://doi.org/10.1038/srep05393 11.Boyd, R., and Richerson, P. J. (2005). The Origin and Evolution of Cultures. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 12.Brigatti E, Netto V M, de Sousa Filho F N M and Cacholas C (2021) Entropy and hierar- chical clustering: Characterizing t...

2005 doi

Pith tools

Reviewed August 12, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.

[1] [1]

1.Adams, R. M. (1981). Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates. Univ of Chicago Pr. 2.Alexander, C. (1964). Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- versity Press. 3.Alexander, C. (1966). A City is Not a Tree. Design. London: Council of Industrial De- sign,

work page 1981

[2] [2]

https://doi.org/10.1371/jour - nal.pone.0087902 40.Pafka, E., & Dovey, K. (2017). Permeability and interface catchment: measuring and mapping walkable access. Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 10(2), 150-162. 41.Panerai, P., Castex, J., Depaule, J. C., & Samuels, I. (2004). Urban forms: the death and life...

doi:10.1371/jour 2017

[3] [3]

https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1469605305057570 43.Raimbault, J. (2018). Calibration of a density-based model of urban morphogenesis. PloS one, 13(9), e0203516. 44.Raup, D. M. (1966). Geometric analysis of shell coiling: general problems. Journal of Paleontology 40, 1178–1190. 45.Ribeiro, F. L., Zhang, P., Gao, L., & Rybski, D. (2024). How buildings change the ...

work page Pith review arXiv 2018

[4] [4]

Determinants of Urban Growth in Pre-Industrial Societies,

53.Trigger, B. G. (1972). “Determinants of Urban Growth in Pre-Industrial Societies,” in Man, Settlement, and Urbanism, eds P. J. Ucko, R. Tringham, and G. W. Dimbleby (Cambridge: Schenkman), 575–599. 54.United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2023). Total and urban population. UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics. Retrieved October 16, 2024...

work page 1972

[5] [6]

https://doi.org/10.3389/fdigh.2019.00012 50.Solich, M., & Bradtmöller, M. (2017). Socioeconomic complexity and the resilience of hunter-gatherer societies. Quaternary International, 446(Supplement C), Article Supple- ment C. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.064 51.Southall, A. W. (1973). Urban anthropology: Cross-cultural studies of urbanization. ...

arXiv 2017

[6] [8]

(1969) The economy of cities

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-017-9332-4 30.Jacobs, J. (1969) The economy of cities. Vintage, New York. 31.Kamalipour, H., & Iranmanesh, A. (2021). Morphogenesis of emerging settlements: Mapping incremental urbanism. Land, 10(1),

work page doi:10.1007/s10816-017-9332-4 1969

[7] [15]

56.Ur, J. (2014). Households and the Emergence of Cities in Ancient Mesopotamia. Cam- bridge Archaeological Journal, 24(2), 249–268. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S095977431400047X

work page 2014

[8] [89]

32.Kaše, V ., Heřmánková, P., & Sobotková, A. (2022). Division of labor, specialization and diversity in the ancient Roman cities: A quantitative approach to Latin epigraphy. PLOS ONE, 17(6), e0269869. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269869 33.Lambert, P. M. (2002). The Archaeology of War: A North American Perspective. Journal of Archaeological Rese...

arXiv 2022