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A giant planet transiting a 3-Myr protostar with a misaligned disk

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Pith's one-line read IRAS 04125+2902 b is the youngest transiting planet known, a Jupiter-radius world orbiting a 3-million-year-old star.

desk verdict A robust young transiting planet whose age claim, not the transit, is the part to scrutinize; the paper earns a serious referee. read the letter →

arxiv 2411.18683 v1 pith:44KZW7H2 submitted 2024-11-27 astro-ph.EP astro-ph.SR

Madyson G. Barber , Andrew W. Mann , Andrew Vanderburg , Daniel Krolikowski , Adam Kraus , Megan Ansdell , Logan Pearce , Gregory N. Mace
show 30 more authors
Sean M. Andrews Andrew W. Boyle Karen A. Collins Matthew De Furio Diana Dragomir Catherine Espaillat Adina D. Feinstein Matthew Fields Daniel Jaffe Ana Isabel Lopez Murillo Felipe Murgas Elisabeth R. Newton Enric Palle Erica Sawczynec Richard P. Schwarz Pa Chia Thao Benjamin M. Tofflemire Cristilyn N. Watkins Jon M. Jenkins David W. Latham George Ricker Sara Seager Roland Vanderspek Joshua N. Winn David Charbonneau Zahra Essack David R. Rodriguez Avi Shporer Joseph D. Twicken Jesus Noel Villaseñor
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.EPastro-ph.SR
keywords transitingexoplanetyoungestplanetTESSTaurusmolecularcloudpre-main-sequencestartransitionaldiskpebbleaccretionmigration
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

IRAS 04125+2902 b is a transiting planet with an 8.83-day period and a radius of 0.97 Jupiter radii, orbiting a roughly 3-million-year-old, 0.7-solar-mass pre-main-sequence star at 160 parsecs in Taurus. The paper argues this is the youngest transiting planet found to date, about three times younger than the previous record holders, and that its low mass upper limit (<0.3 Jupiter masses) makes it a likely precursor of the super-Earths and sub-Neptunes common around mature stars. The existence of such a planet so early matters because it shows that planetary cores of tens of Earth masses can assemble and migrate inward within a few million years, and that young planets can present clean, sharply-edged transits. The detection was made possible by a rare geometry: the outer disk is nearly face-on and the inner disk is depleted out to roughly 20 AU, so the edge-on orbit of the planet is not hidden by disk material.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing mechanism is the system's geometry plus a sharp planetary transit signal. IRAS 04125+2902 hosts a transitional disk with an inner cavity out to about 20 AU and an outer disk inclined only about 30 degrees to our line of sight, so an edge-on planetary orbit is not occulted by optically thick material. The transit analysis uses a Gaussian-process model of the 11.3-day stellar rotation variability in the TESS light curves, with the MISTTBORN/BATMAN transit model to extract the period, depth, and impact parameter; the flat, sharply-edged shape and wavelength-independent depth separate the signal from dust-dipper variability, while radial velocities from HPF, APOGEE, and IGRINS place the mass limit.

What would settle it

A radial-velocity campaign dense enough to detect a companion more massive than 0.3 Jupiter masses at 95% confidence would overturn the sub-Neptune-precursor interpretation, as would a measurement showing the transit comes from a close stellar or brown-dwarf companion. Alternatively, an independent stellar age estimate (for example from lithium depletion or a revised pre-main-sequence grid) placing the star above 10 Myr would remove the 'youngest transiting planet' record while leaving the transit detection intact.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central discovery is that a planet can be caught transiting its host star while the protoplanetary disk is still present, at an age near 3 Myr. The authors report 18 TESS transits plus ground-based multiwavelength follow-up, yielding period $P = 8.834976 \pm 2.4 \times 10^{-5}$ days, radius $R_P = 0.97 \pm 0.06\,R_J$, and a 95% confidence mass limit below $0.3\,M_J$ from radial velocities. They reject the usual false-positive scenarios (background eclipsing binary, blended source, stellar variability, and transient dipper behavior) using the consistency of the transit across instruments and filters, the flat-bottomed trapezoidal shape, and high-resolution imaging limits. Because the host is a known member of the 2.5-Myr D4-North subgroup of Taurus-Auriga and fits pre-main-sequence tracks to an age of $3.3^{+0.6}_{-0.5}$ Myr, the planet becomes the youngest transiting planet known, and its radius combined with the mass limit points to an inflated sub-Neptune or sub-Saturn that will shrink as it cools.

Load-bearing premise

The conclusion that this is the youngest transiting planet rests on the pre-main-sequence age estimate of about 3 Myr; if the evolutionary tracks used to date the star are biased for young, accreting stars and the star is actually substantially older, that headline claim and the inference of sub-Neptune formation within a few million years would weaken.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • This is the youngest transiting planet known, roughly three times younger than the previous record holders, giving a direct view of planetary structure shortly after formation.
  • The planet's existence supports models in which pebble accretion builds a tens-of-Earth-mass core and migrates it inside 0.2 AU within 2-3 million years.
  • The radius combined with the mass upper limit means IRAS 04125+2902 b is likely a precursor of the common super-Earths and sub-Neptunes, not a hot Jupiter, and will shrink as it cools.
  • The star, planet, and wide binary companion appear aligned while the outer disk is misaligned by about 4 sigma, leaving the origin of the disk warp unexplained.
  • Because the planet is large, low-density, and nearby, it is a strong target for atmospheric follow-up observations.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If this geometry is not extraordinarily rare, many young planets orbiting inside depleted, nearly face-on disks may be hiding in plain sight; targeted searches of transition-disk members in young associations could find more such systems.
  • The misaligned outer disk, if caused by infall rather than the binary companion, would imply that planet formation and migration can proceed in disks not aligned with the final stellar spin, complicating spin-orbit interpretation of young systems.
  • A transmission spectrum of IRAS 04125+2902 b could test whether its extended atmosphere is still accreting or already escaping, directly connecting the observed inflated radius to the formation channel.
  • Future high-resolution disk mapping could distinguish the infall-warp scenario from binary-driven misalignment, a distinction the current data leave open.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

0 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper reports the discovery of IRAS 04125+2902 b, a transiting planet with an orbital period of 8.83498 days and a radius of 0.97 Jupiter radii, orbiting a ~3 Myr, 0.7 solar-mass pre-main-sequence star in the Taurus Molecular Cloud. The detection is based on 18 TESS transits across six sectors and is confirmed by multi-wavelength ground-based photometry from LCO. An extensive false-positive analysis using AO imaging, radial velocities, color constraints, and companion-search modeling rules out most alternative interpretations. The paper additionally characterizes a wide binary companion and a misaligned outer disk, and derives a 95% upper limit on the planet mass of 0.3 Jupiter masses. The authors argue this is the youngest transiting planet known and a possible precursor of super-Earths or sub-Neptunes, implying that planet formation and migration can occur within 2–3 Myr.

Significance. If correct, this constitutes a benchmark discovery: the youngest transiting planet known, providing a unique window into planetary structure and migration at ages when protoplanetary disks are still present. The paper is thorough in its vetting: the transit is recovered in independent TESS and ground-based datasets, the false-positive scenarios are addressed individually with quantitative constraints, and the key parameters (disk inclination, binary inclination, stellar rotation, planet mass limit) come from independent datasets, mitigating concerns about circularity. The data and code availability statements meet reproducibility standards. The main scientific payoff, that such compact planets can form and migrate within a few million years, is significant for planet formation theory.

minor comments (5)
  1. [Title and Abstract] The term 'protostar' in the title is inappropriate for a 3 Myr pre-main-sequence star that no longer has a dense envelope; 'young star' or 'pre-main-sequence star' would be more accurate. Additionally, the title calls the object a 'giant planet' while the paper argues that it is likely a sub-Neptune precursor; the title may mislead readers about the inferred nature.
  2. [Methods: Host star properties] The age estimate of 3.3+0.6/-0.5 Myr is derived from a single set of pre-main-sequence evolutionary tracks (PARSECv1.2S). Systematic uncertainties from starspots, magnetic activity, and accretion are not discussed. Since the 'youngest transiting planet' claim rests on this age, the paper would be strengthened by a caveat and, ideally, a comparison with other evolutionary models (e.g., BHAC15 or SPOTS) to demonstrate that the conclusion is not track-dependent.
  3. [Methods: Radial Velocities and RV analysis] The mass upper limit of <0.3 M_J at 95% confidence is derived from only six HPF radial-velocity epochs using a white-noise jitter model. Given the star's strong photometric variability (1–10%) and 11.3-day rotation period, correlated activity signals could plausibly influence the posterior. The paper notes that more complex jitter models increase the limit to <2 M_J, but presenting the K posterior and a rotation-phased RV diagnostic would make the robustness of the <0.3 M_J constraint more transparent.
  4. [Methods: Star-binary alignment] The binary orbital inclination is reported as 94.5+10.9/-4.7 degrees based on astrometry covering only a small orbital arc. The text correctly notes the eccentricity is unconstrained, but the inclination constraint also relies on the assumption of purely radial motion; the uncertainty should be emphasized so that 'consistent with edge-on' is not overstated.
  5. [Author Contributions and tables] There are a few typographical issues: 'preformed' should be 'performed' in the Author Contributions; Extended Data Table 3 lists 'W 3 (mag)' twice with different values, one of which is presumably W4; and the abstract uses 'i ∼ 30°' for the disk without explicitly stating that this is the inclination angle (measured from face-on), which may confuse readers.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the transit, radius, mass limit, disk inclination, and stellar age are each derived from independent datasets or external model grids, and no fitted parameter is renamed as a prediction.

full rationale

The central detection chain is self-contained: the 8.83-day period and 0.97 RJ radius come from a joint transit fit to TESS and LCO photometry, with false-positive scenarios rejected using imaging, multi-color transits, and RVs. The <0.3 MJ mass limit is a direct fit to HPF radial velocities, not an assumed input. The stellar age of 3.3+0.6/-0.5 Myr is obtained by fitting PARSECv1.2S evolutionary tracks to photometry and Gaia parallax, which is an external model grid and does not presuppose the planet's existence or youth. The supporting Taurus D4-North group age of 2.49 Myr is cited from Krolikowski et al. (2021), a separately published catalog that overlaps in authorship, but this citation is not load-bearing because the paper independently derives the host star age and uses the group age only as a consistency check. Similarly, the disk inclination is re-derived by fitting an elliptical Gaussian to archival SMA visibilities, so it does not reduce to the earlier Espaillat et al. (2015) value, even though that work was partly by a co-author. The sub-Neptune/super-Earth progenitor interpretation relies on published cooling and pebble-accretion models, not on the transit data themselves. No equation or fitted parameter is renamed as a prediction; the only quantity that could be questioned is the pre-main-sequence track age, but that is a standard external model assumption rather than a circular step. Thus the paper shows no significant circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 9 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central detection rests on standard transit photometry and false-positive rejection. The more interpretive claims, such as the youngest planet and the sub-Neptune progenitor, rest on model-dependent stellar parameters, a mass upper limit, and published evolutionary and cluster models. No new physical entities are introduced.

free parameters (9)
  • Stellar age = 3.3 +0.6/-0.5 Myr
    From PARSECv1.2S isochrone fit to photometry and Gaia parallax. The 'youngest transiting planet' claim depends on this age.
  • Stellar mass = 0.70 +/- 0.04 M_sun
    From the same PARSEC grid fit; enters the stellar radius and hence the planet radius.
  • Stellar radius = 1.48 +/- 0.07 R_sun
    Derived from bolometric flux and the Stefan-Boltzmann law; directly scales the planet radius.
  • Disk inclination = 31 +/- 12 deg
    From an elliptical Gaussian fit to SMA 880 um visibilities; underpins the misalignment claim.
  • Binary inclination = 94.5 +10.9/-4.7 deg
    From an orbit fit to Gaia astrometry and Keck/NIRC2 positions; supports the statement that the binary is edge-on.
  • Planet mass upper limit = <0.3 M_J (95%)
    From a three-parameter fit to HPF radial velocities; the interpretation as a sub-Neptune progenitor depends on this upper limit.
  • Planet radius = 0.97 +/- 0.06 R_J
    From the transit fit with MISTTBORN/BATMAN; a central measured quantity.
  • Stellar rotation period = 11.31 +/- 0.06 d
    From a GLS periodogram of TESS photometry; used with v sin i and R* to infer the stellar inclination lower limit.
  • Projected rotational velocity = 7.1 +/- 0.5 km/s
    From cross-correlation of IGRINS spectra; used with the rotation period to set the stellar inclination.
assumptions (6)
  • domain assumption IRAS 04125+2902 is a member of the D4-North subpopulation of Taurus-Auriga with an age of 2.49 +0.35/-0.34 Myr (Krolikowski et al. 2021).
    Used to anchor the stellar age and membership; relies on a published cluster analysis by co-authors.
  • domain assumption PARSECv1.2S pre-main-sequence tracks are reliable for a ~3 Myr, 0.7 M_sun star.
    Stellar mass, radius, and age are inferred from this model grid; systematic track errors propagate to the 'youngest planet' claim.
  • domain assumption The inner disk is depleted enough that the star is not obscured at optical and near-infrared wavelengths.
    Required for the transit to be visible; supported by the transition-disk SED and SMA cavity but not directly mapped at the planet's orbital radius.
  • domain assumption The rotation period measured from TESS photometry reflects the true stellar rotation period.
    Used with v sin i and R* to place a lower limit on the stellar inclination.
  • domain assumption Keplerian orbit fitting to sparse astrometry (Gaia plus Keck) is sufficient to constrain the binary inclination.
    Used to claim the binary is edge-on; the authors note the eccentricity is unconstrained and the orbit is only partially covered.
  • domain assumption Published young-planet cooling and evolution models correctly predict inflated radii and subsequent contraction.
    These models underlie the argument that the 0.97 R_J object with M < 0.3 M_J will shrink into a sub-Neptune or sub-Saturn.

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Pith. "Pith review of A giant planet transiting a 3-Myr protostar with a misaligned disk." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/44KZW7H2

@misc{pith2026241118683,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: A giant planet transiting a 3-Myr protostar with a misaligned disk},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/44KZW7H2}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2411.18683}
}
abstract

Astronomers have found more than a dozen planets transiting 10-40 million year old stars, but even younger transiting planets have remained elusive. A possible reason for the lack of such discoveries is that newly formed planets are not yet in a configuration that would be recognized as a transiting planet or cannot exhibit transits because our view is blocked by a protoplanetary disk. However, we now know that many outer disks are warped; provided the inner disk is depleted, transiting planets may thus be visible. Here we report the observations of the transiting planet IRAS 04125+2902 b orbiting a 3 Myr, 0.7 M$_\odot$, pre-main sequence star in the Taurus Molecular Cloud. IRAS 04125+2902 hosts a nearly face-on (i $\sim$ 30$^\circ$) transitional disk and a wide binary companion. The planet has a period of 8.83 days, a radius of 10.9 R$_\oplus$ (0.97R$_J$), and a 95%-confidence upper limit on its mass of 90M$_\oplus$ (0.3M$_J$) from radial velocity measurements, making it a possible precursor of the super-Earths and sub-Neptunes that are commonly found around main-sequence stars. The rotational broadening of the star and the orbit of the wide (4", 635 AU) companion are both consistent with edge-on orientations. Thus, all components of the system appear to be aligned except the outer disk; the origin of this misalignment is unclear. Given the rare set of circumstances required to detect a transiting planet at ages when the disk is still present, IRAS 04125+2902 b likely provides a unique window into sub-Neptunes immediately following formation.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2411.18683 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Left: Phase-folded light curve from TESS (gray points) binned to 20-minute intervals (purple points). The best-fit transit model is shown as the bright, opaque red line with 100 model fits pulled from the posterior shown as the dark, translucent red lines. The best-fit GP model of the stellar variability was removed from the data and model. Right: Representative sector of the TESS light curve (gray points) with the … view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Ground-based follow-up transits observed by LCO. Transits of the same filter have been [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Archival SMA 880 µm continuum emission of IRAS 04125+29024 . The image is centered on the estimated disk center and is scaled so that reddest color is equal to the peak flux density. Contours at 2σ, 4σ, and 6σ are shown by the black solid lines. The synthesized beam is illustrated by the dashed gray ellipse drawn in the lower right corner. The irregular shape is likely due to the resolution of the data rather than a… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (1 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Schematic of the system showing the stellar orbit (a), the disk (b), the planet orbit (c), [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_4.png]

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Forward citations

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