Formation of super-Earths and mini-Neptunes from rings of planetesimals

The solar system planetary architecture has been proposed to be consistent with the terrestrial and giant planets forming from material rings at ~1 au and ~5 au, respectively. Here, we show that super-Earths and mini-Neptunes may share a similar formation pathway. In our simulations conducted with a disk alpha-viscosity of 4e-3, super-Earths accrete from rings of rocky material in the inner disk, growing predominantly via planetesimal accretion. Mini-Neptunes primarily originate from rings located beyond the water snowline, forming via pebble accretion. Our simulations broadly match the period-ratio distribution, the intra-system size uniformity, and the planet multiplicity distribution of exoplanets. The radius valley constrains the typical total mass available for rocky planet formation to be less than 3-6 Earth masses. Our results predict that planets at ~1 au in systems with close-in super-Earths and mini-Neptunes are predominantly water-rich. Though relatively uncommon, at ~1% level, such systems might also host rocky Earth-sized planets in the habitable zone that underwent late giant impacts, akin to the Moon-forming event.