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Retrieving day- and nightside atmospheric properties of the ultra-hot Jupiter TOI-2109b. Detection of Fe and CO emission lines and evidence for inefficient heat transport

T0 review · 4 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-08-16 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read TOI-2109b, an ultra-hot Jupiter in an unexplored temperature gap, emits Fe I and CO lines from an inverted dayside while its nightside stays featureless, which the authors read as evidence that it transports little heat from day to night.

desk verdict First atmospheric characterization of TOI-2109b; the CO detection and dayside T-p constraints look solid, but the 'inefficient heat transport' headline is not supported by the quantitative evidence. read the letter →

arxiv 2504.15757 v1 pith:DC5GMWTJ submitted 2025-04-22 astro-ph.EP

D. Cont , L. Nortmann , F. Lesjak , F. Yan , D. Shulyak , A. Lavail , M. Stangret , E. Pallé
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P. J. Amado J. A. Caballero A. Hatzes Th. Henning N. Piskunov A. Quirrenbach A. Reiners I. Ribas J. F. Agüí Fernández C. Ak{i}n L. Boldt-Christmas P. Chaturvedi S. Czesla A. Hahlin K. Heng O. Kochukhov T. Marquart K. Molaverdikhani D. Montes G. Morello E. Nagel J. Orell-Miquel A. D. Rains M. Rengel A. Schweitzer A. Sánchez-López U. Seemann
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.EP
keywords ultra-hotJupiterexoplanetatmosphereshigh-resolutionspectroscopythermalinversionheatredistributionemissionatmosphericretrievalTOI-2109b
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

TOI-2109b is an ultra-hot Jupiter that sits in the temperature gap between 3500 K and 4500 K, a regime where no other gas giant has been characterized in detail. Using high-resolution emission spectra of both hemispheres, the paper detects Fe I and CO lines in emission on the dayside, proving that the upper atmosphere is hotter than the lower atmosphere, a thermal inversion extending from about 3200 K to 4600 K. No water is seen, and no line emission at all is detected from the nightside, where the retrieval sets an upper temperature limit near 2400 K and a maximum temperature gradient of roughly 700 K/log bar. Comparing the retrieved dayside temperature-pressure profile with model atmospheres that assume either no or full heat redistribution, the paper argues that TOI-2109b transports heat inefficiently from day to night and represents a transitional atmospheric state between cooler ultra-hot Jupiters and the extreme object KELT-9b.

What carries the argument

The central machinery is the two-point temperature-pressure profile, a curve fixed by a low-pressure temperature point and a high-pressure temperature point connected linearly in log-pressure, used to model each hemisphere. Emission lines found by cross-correlating the reduced spectra against Fe I, CO, and H2O templates are the direct evidence for the dayside inversion, since only an atmosphere that gets hotter with altitude produces lines in emission. The same profile, forward-modeled with a radiative transfer code and fit jointly to high-resolution spectra and eclipse photometry, converts line strengths into temperatures and abundances. Finally, placing the retrieved dayside profile between model atmospheres computed with no and with full day-to-night heat redistribution is the step that turns the retrieved temperatures into a conclusion about heat transport efficiency.

What would settle it

When a phase-resolved thermal light curve of TOI-2109b is measured, the claim will be settled: a nightside brightness temperature above roughly 2400 K, or the appearance of nightside line features in emission or absorption, would contradict the paper's picture of a nearly isothermal nightside and inefficient day-night heat transport.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The paper's central claim is that the atmosphere of TOI-2109b is lopsided in a specific, measurable way. Detected Fe I and CO emission lines place the dayside in a thermal inversion: temperatures rise from around 3200 K at depth to about 4600 K in the upper atmosphere, and a Bayesian retrieval that combines the high-resolution spectra with TESS and Palomar/WIRC secondary-eclipse photometry finds the high-pressure layers near 3600 K. The absence of H2O emission follows naturally if the dayside is hot enough to dissociate water. On the nightside, the absence of any line signal yields only upper limits, temperatures below roughly 2400 K at pressures above $10^{-4}$ bar and a maximum temperature gradient of about 700 K/log bar, consistent with a nearly isothermal, featureless nightside. Because the retrieved dayside profile sits between, and slightly closer to, the model with no day-to-night heat redistribution, and because the measured line broadening matches tidal locking rather than strong winds, the authors conclude that heat transport across the planet is inefficient, and that TOI-2109b fills a transitional thermochemical regime between cooler ultra-hot Jupiters and KELT-9b.

Load-bearing premise

The claim that TOI-2109b transports heat inefficiently rests on assuming that the one-dimensional model atmospheres with no and full heat redistribution bracket the real atmosphere, so the retrieved dayside temperature-pressure profile lying between them, and slightly closer to the no-redistribution case, can be converted into a measure of heat transport efficiency; if the models do not bracket reality, or if the two-point profile is too simple to represent the true structure, the inefficiency conclusion does not follow.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • TOI-2109b becomes the first characterized benchmark in the 3500-4500 K equilibrium-temperature gap, giving observers a target for testing how ultra-hot Jupiter thermochemistry changes across this regime.
  • The retrieved dayside profile implies that a strong upper-atmosphere absorber drives the thermal inversion and that water is thermally dissociated, predicting H2O will remain undetectable in similar planets at or above these temperatures.
  • The nightside upper limits imply that high-resolution line searches on TOI-2109b's nightside will stay empty unless the nightside temperature-pressure profile is more complex than a single-gradient structure, so nondetections should be interpreted as thermal structure rather than missing chemistry.
  • If line broadening is indeed only tidal rotation, then any future measurement of extra broadening in Fe I or CO lines would signal atmospheric dynamics, making the $v_{\rm eq}$ constraint a direct diagnostic of circulation.
  • The results place TOI-2109b between cooler ultra-hot Jupiters, which show CO and H2O emission, and KELT-9b, which shows no molecular features, implying the 3500-4500 K range is where molecular signatures drop out of ultra-hot Jupiter emission spectra.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Because the submitted claim of inefficient heat transport rests on the retrieved profile being only slightly closer to the no-redistribution model, a direct phase-curve measurement of the planet's day-night brightness contrast would settle the question more cleanly than the current model comparison.
  • The 1-sigma range on the rotation velocity, about 6.3 to 17.8 km/s, contains the tidally locked value of about 10 km/s, so the paper's absence-of-strong-dynamics conclusion is weaker than its own wording suggests; a higher signal-to-noise detection of Fe I or CO could tighten this constraint and either confirm or overturn the low-dynamics interpretation.
  • If the transitional-regime picture is right, other ultra-hot Jupiters in the 3500-4500 K gap should show CO emission without H2O, so a small survey of such planets would directly test the thermochemical transition proposed here.
  • The featureless nightside could equally arise from a temperature structure that combines emission and absorption features, which the two-point profile cannot represent; using a more flexible nightside temperature parameterization would distinguish these cases.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

4 major / 6 minor

Summary. The paper presents the first in-depth atmospheric characterization of the ultra-hot Jupiter TOI-2109b using high-resolution emission spectroscopy from CARMENES (dayside) and CRIRES+ (day- and nightside). Cross-correlation analysis yields a CO detection at S/N=6.3 and a tentative Fe I signal at S/N=4.3, with no H2O detection on the dayside and no line detections on the nightside. A Bayesian retrieval that combines the high-resolution spectra with TESS and Palomar/WIRC secondary-eclipse photometry constrains the dayside T-p profile to show a thermal inversion between roughly 3200 K and 4600 K, gives [M/H] consistent with the stellar value, places only a lower limit on C/O, and retrieves a rotation broadening parameter consistent with tidal locking. The nightside retrieval provides upper limits on nightside temperature and temperature gradient. The authors compare the retrieved dayside profile with HELIOS models with no and full heat redistribution and, together with the broadening result and day-night temperature contrast, conclude that heat transport is inefficient.

Significance. If the conclusions hold, this paper is significant because TOI-2109b occupies the poorly explored equilibrium-temperature gap between cooler ultra-hot Jupiters and KELT-9b, and the detection of Fe I and CO emission with a thermal inversion provides an important data point for thermochemical and dynamical models. The study also demonstrates a useful framework for combining high-resolution emission spectroscopy with broadband photometry in a Bayesian retrieval, and it makes reduced spectra publicly available. The nightside upper limits and the careful treatment of SYSREM iteration choice are commendable. However, the headline claim of inefficient heat transport rests on a qualitative model comparison and a non-constraining broadening measurement, and the Fe I detection is described as tentative in the text but as a firm detection in the abstract and conclusions; these issues need to be addressed before the central claims can be considered established.

major comments (4)
  1. [Sect. 5.2.1 (Fig. 6) and Conclusions item 3] The inference of inefficient heat transport rests on the statement that the retrieved dayside T-p profile is "slightly closer" to the no-redistribution HELIOS model than to the full-redistribution one, but no quantitative comparison statistic is provided. Given the retrieved T1 = 4601 +1557/-609 K, T2 = 3173 +300/-727 K, and log p1 = -4.92 +1.99/-1.89 dex (Table 3), the credible envelope of the retrieved profile is several hundred to over a thousand kelvin wide, while the separation between the two HELIOS end-member profiles is expected to be only a few hundred kelvin in the relevant pressure range. The data therefore do not discriminate between the two redistribution scenarios. I recommend adding a formal model-comparison statistic (e.g., a likelihood ratio, information criterion, or direct distance metric between the retrieved profile and each HELIOS profile) or explicitly downgrading the heat-transport conclusion to a tentative suggestion, and adjusting the abstract, title, and Conclusions accordingly.
  2. [Sect. 5.2.1, v_eq argument] The claim that the retrieved line broadening indicates "the absence of strong dynamical processes" is not supported by the measurement. The retrieved v_eq = 12.07 +5.75/-5.78 km/s gives a 1-sigma interval of roughly 6.3-17.8 km/s, which contains the tidally locked value of about 10 km/s and extends to 17.8 km/s; this is consistent with tidal locking but does not exclude substantial additional broadening from winds or turbulence. The caution expressed later in the same section is appropriate, but the abstract ("indicating the absence of strong dynamical processes") and Conclusions item 3 overstate what the broadening measurement can show. The dynamical contribution should either be modeled explicitly or this supporting argument should be removed or qualified.
  3. [Sect. 4.4.1, abstract, and Conclusions item 1] The Fe I detection is described in the text as "tentative evidence" with a maximum S/N of 4.3, yet the abstract and Conclusions state that Fe I emission lines were identified or detected. At S/N=4.3, with searches over Kp, vsys, and the number of SYSREM iterations, a false-alarm probability that accounts for the number of independent trials should be reported before Fe I is promoted to a detection in the headline results. If the trials-adjusted significance is not robust, the manuscript should consistently describe the Fe I signal as tentative, which would also affect the title's claim of "Detection of Fe and CO emission lines".
  4. [Sect. 5.2.1, HELIOS comparison methodology] The comparison with HELIOS models is used as the primary evidence for limited heat transport, but the manuscript does not specify how the retrieved median T-p profile is compared with the model profiles (e.g., over which pressure range, with what weighting, and whether the full posterior is used). The statement in the text that the retrieved profile is "slightly closer" to one model is anecdotal rather than quantitative, especially given the large asymmetric uncertainties on the low-pressure anchor. I request that the authors either supply a quantitative comparison, such as a distribution of distances between posterior samples and each HELIOS profile, or clearly state that the data cannot distinguish the two scenarios.
minor comments (6)
  1. [Abstract and Sect. 4.4.1] Consider labeling the Fe I signal as "tentative" in the abstract and in the Conclusions list, for consistency with the body of the paper.
  2. [Fig. 6] The Wong et al. (2021) dayside temperature point is placed outside the T-p space with no associated pressure; this makes the comparison with the retrieved profile difficult to interpret. Consider placing the point at a representative photospheric pressure or removing it from the T-p panel.
  3. [Sect. 5.1, Eq. (3)] The Gaussian likelihood in Eq. (3) includes the noise-scaling parameter beta, but the manuscript does not state whether beta is marginalized or profiled and does not report the number of effectively independent spectral channels used in the calculation; a brief clarification would help the reader assess the reported uncertainties.
  4. [Table 3] The nightside columns list [M/H] and C/O as "0" and "0.55", but the text states that these were fixed to solar values; the table should clearly distinguish fixed parameters from free parameters rather than using prior-like notation.
  5. [Sect. 5.1] No information is given about MCMC burn-in, thinning, or convergence checks (e.g., autocorrelation times) for the 32 walkers with 30,000 steps; a short statement on convergence would strengthen the reported parameter intervals.
  6. [Throughout] The notation "3sys", "3eq", and "3p" appears to be an encoding artifact for the systemic velocity, equatorial velocity, and planetary velocity; please ensure the typeset symbols (v_sys, v_eq, v_p) are correct in the final version.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the detections and retrieval are data-driven, and the heat-transport conclusion is weakly supported but not circular.

full rationale

The paper's derivation chain is self-contained. The dayside T-p profile, abundances, and velocity parameters are obtained by an MCMC retrieval whose likelihood combines the high-resolution residual spectra (Eq. 3) with independent TESS/WIRC eclipse photometry (Eq. 4); the temperature parameters T1, T2, p1, dp are free parameters with broad uniform priors (Table 3), so the retrieved inversion (T1 = 4601 K, T2 = 3173 K) is not imposed by the two-point parameterization. The Fe I and CO detections use cross-correlation templates whose adopted T-p profiles are taken from prior KELT-9b/WASP-33b work, but the detection itself is a positive S/N peak at the expected Kp and vsys, and the inversion is independently recovered by the free retrieval; no fitted parameter is renamed as a prediction. The nightside analysis fixes [M/H], C/O, Kp, vsys, and rotation to assumed values, but it reports only upper limits and explicitly notes that an isothermal or inverted profile would also explain the nondetection, so the limits are not forced by those assumptions. The 'inefficient heat transport' conclusion is a qualitative comparison of the retrieved dayside profile to two external HELIOS models, and the authors explicitly caution that further observations are needed and that firm conclusions about atmospheric dynamics are difficult given the large uncertainties in veq; this is an evidentiary weakness, not circularity. Self-citations (Cont et al. 2024; Lesjak et al. 2025) are methodological and are not used as the sole justification for any physical claim. No equation or fit reduces to its own input.

Assumptions & free parameters 14 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The paper's central results are based on fitting an atmospheric model to high-resolution spectra and published eclipse depths. Ten or more free parameters are fitted, and the interpretation depends on several domain assumptions: a two-point T-p parametrization, equilibrium chemistry with FastChem, purely thermal dayside emission with no reflected light, the accuracy of the adopted line lists, a circular orbit, and the ability of two 1D HELIOS models to bracket the true thermal structure. No new particles, forces, or other invented entities are introduced.

free parameters (14)
  • T1 (dayside upper temperature anchor) = 4601+1557-609 K
    Defines the low-pressure end of the two-point T-p profile; retrieved from emission spectra and photometry; weakly constrained.
  • T2 (dayside lower temperature anchor) = 3173+300-727 K
    Defines the high-pressure end of the T-p profile; constrained mainly by TESS and WIRC eclipse depths.
  • log p1 (dayside pressure anchor) = -4.92+1.99-1.89
    Pressure of the upper T-p anchor; very weakly constrained.
  • dp (dayside pressure thickness) = >2.37
    log p2 = log p1 + dp; lower limit only.
  • [M/H] (dayside metallicity) = 0.36+1.42-1.17 dex
    Posterior median; wide range, consistent with stellar value.
  • C/O (dayside carbon-to-oxygen) = >0.15
    Only a lower limit; posterior maximum near solar values but not constrained.
  • v_eq (equatorial rotation velocity) = 12.07+5.75-5.78 km/s
    From line broadening; consistent with tidally locked ~10 km/s, but 1-sigma range is 6.3 to 17.8 km/s.
  • Kp (orbital semi-amplitude) = 262.95+6.65-5.72 km/s
    Free parameter in retrieval; consistent with Wong et al. expected value.
  • vsys (systemic velocity) = -18.64+5.86-4.98 km/s
    Retrieved; differs from some literature values.
  • Noise scaling beta (CARMENES VIS) = 0.9082 +/- 0.0002
    Per-instrument noise scaling factor in the Gaussian likelihood.
  • Noise scaling beta (CARMENES NIR) = 0.7403 +/- 0.0003
    Per-instrument noise scaling factor in the Gaussian likelihood.
  • Noise scaling beta (CRIRES+ dayside) = 1.7016 +/- 0.0007
    Per-instrument noise scaling factor in the Gaussian likelihood.
  • Nightside thermal parameters T1, T2, log p1, dp = T2 < 2364 K; T1 < 8159 K; log p1 < -3.04; dp < 5.86
    Nightside retrieval fixing chemical, velocity, and broadening parameters; only upper limits on thermal structure.
  • Noise scaling beta (CRIRES+ nightside) = 1.4049 +/- 0.0007
    Noise scaling for the nightside CRIRES+ dataset.
assumptions (6)
  • domain assumption A two-point, log-linear T-p parametrization (isothermal below p1 and above p2) adequately represents the atmosphere for retrieval purposes.
    Adopted in Sect. 5.1; the paper itself notes in Sect. 5.2.2 that more complex T-p profiles could be needed, especially for the nightside.
  • domain assumption Equilibrium chemistry computed with FastChem, with [M/H] = [Fe/H] = [O/H] and carbon set by C/O, describes the abundances.
    Sect. 5.1; no photochemistry or disequilibrium processes are included.
  • domain assumption Dayside photometric flux is purely thermal emission with negligible reflected light and no cloud or haze reflection.
    Sect. 5.1, following Yan et al. (2022b); supported by low albedo measurements of other hot Jupiters but not directly for TOI-2109b.
  • domain assumption The HELIOS 1D radiative-convective equilibrium models with no or full heat redistribution bracket the true dayside thermal structure.
    Sect. 5.2.1; used to interpret the retrieved T-p profile as evidence for inefficient heat transport; no 3D models are computed.
  • domain assumption The standard line lists (Kurucz Fe I, Li et al. CO, POKAZATEL H2O) and petitRADTRANS opacities are accurate at these temperatures.
    Sects. 4.1 and 5.1; all detections and retrievals depend on these opacities.
  • domain assumption The planet's orbit is circular for the Doppler model.
    Sect. 4.2, Eq. (2); Wong et al. (2021) find an eccentricity consistent with zero.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Retrieving day- and nightside atmospheric properties of the ultra-hot Jupiter TOI-2109b. Detection of Fe and CO emission lines and evidence for inefficient heat transport." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/DC5GMWTJ

@misc{pith2026250415757,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Retrieving day- and nightside atmospheric properties of the ultra-hot Jupiter TOI-2109b. Detection of Fe and CO emission lines and evidence for inefficient heat transport},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/DC5GMWTJ}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2504.15757}
}
abstract

The ultra-hot Jupiter (UHJ) TOI-2109b marks the lower edge of the equilibrium temperature gap between 3500 K and 4500 K, an unexplored thermal regime that separates KELT-9b, the hottest planet yet discovered, from all other currently known gas giants. To study the structure of TOI-2109b's atmosphere, we obtained high-resolution emission spectra of both the planetary day- and nightsides with CARMENES and CRIRES$^+$. By applying the cross-correlation technique, we identified the emission signatures of Fe I and CO, as well as a thermal inversion layer in the dayside atmosphere; no significant H$_2$O signal was detected from the dayside. None of the analyzed species were detectable from the nightside atmosphere. We applied a Bayesian retrieval framework that combines high-resolution spectroscopy with photometric measurements to constrain the dayside atmospheric parameters and derive upper limits for the nightside hemisphere. The dayside thermal inversion extends from 3200 K to 4600 K, with an atmospheric metallicity consistent with that of the host star (0.36 dex). Only weak constraints could be placed on the C/O ratio ($>$ 0.15). The retrieved spectral line broadening is consistent with tidally locked rotation, indicating the absence of strong dynamical processes. An upper temperature limit of 2400 K and a maximum atmospheric temperature gradient of 700 K/log bar could be derived for the nightside. Comparison of the retrieved dayside T-p profile with theoretical models, the absence of strong atmospheric dynamics, and significant differences in the thermal constraints between the day- and nightside hemispheres suggest a limited heat transport efficiency across the planetary atmosphere. Overall, our results place TOI-2109b in a transitional regime between the UHJs below the thermal gap, which show both CO and H$_2$O emission lines, and KELT-9b, where molecular features are largely absent.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2504.15757 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Orbital phase coverage of TOI-2109b observations. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Example of data reduction steps for a selected CRIRES [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Spectral models (left panels) and S/N maps (right panels) of the chemical species investigated in the dayside atmosphere of TOI-2109b. The three top panels show the information for the individual chemical species Fe i, CO, and H2O, the bottom panels show the information for all species combined. We note that the species-combined signal is dominated by the CO detection with CRIRES+ . The Fe i spectral signature mainl… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (5 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Same as Fig. 3 but for the nightside atmosphere of TOI-2109b. The investigated species result in nondetections. The nightside [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_4.png]
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: The detection of spectral lines in emission unambiguously [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_5.png]
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: S/N values of Fe i and CO as a function of SYSREM itera￾tions. Iterations with the most significant S/N peaks are indicated by the star symbol. to two factors. First, the planetary Fe i lines are predominantly located at the blue end of the CARMENES wavelength range, w…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Atmospheric temperature and abundance profiles. The [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_6.png]
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Upper temperature limits in the nightside hemisphere of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_7.png]

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Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score. Full citation record

  1. Orbital Decay of the Ultra-Hot Jupiter TOI-2109b: Tidal Constraints and Transit-Timing Analysis

    astro-ph.EP 2025-05 conditional novelty 6.0 of 10

    Transit-timing data for TOI-2109b rule out fast orbital decay and favor a slow decay rate of a few milliseconds per year consistent with a young host star.

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