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arxiv: 2505.10910 · v2 · pith:LLS7H4WVnew · submitted 2025-05-16 · 🌌 astro-ph.EP

Cloudy mornings and clear evenings on a gas giant exoplanet

Sagnick Mukherjee , David K. Sing , Guangwei Fu , Kevin B. Stevenson , Stephen P. Schmidt , Harry Baskett , Mei Ting Mak , Patrick McCreery
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Natalie H. Allen Katherine A. Bennett Duncan A. Christie Carlos Gasc\'on Jayesh Goyal \'Eric H\'ebrard Joshua D. Lothringer Mercedes L\'opez-Morales Jacob Lustig-Yaeger Erin M. May L. C. Mayorga Nathan Mayne Lakeisha M. Ramos Rosado Henrique Reggiani Zafar Rustamkulov Kevin C. Schlaufman K. S. Sotzen Daniel Thorngren Le-Chris Wang Maria Zamyatina
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-25 08:43 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.EP
keywords exoplanet atmospherestransmission spectroscopylimb asymmetrycloud formationWASP-94A baerosolshot Jupitersatmospheric circulation
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The pith

The gas giant exoplanet WASP-94A b shows a cloudy morning limb and a hotter evening limb with clear H2O absorption because clouds form and then evaporate during atmospheric circulation.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper measures the transmission spectrum of the tidally locked gas giant WASP-94A b and finds clear differences between its morning and evening limbs. The morning limb appears cooler and cloudy while the evening limb is hotter and displays gaseous water absorption. The authors interpret the asymmetry as the result of cloud droplets condensing near the morning terminator and evaporating as material circulates to the evening side. This points to condensation clouds cycling between day and night sides as the main aerosol type rather than photochemical hazes. If the interpretation holds, standard transmission spectra that average over both limbs will produce biased chemical abundance estimates.

Core claim

We measure the transmission spectrum of the tidally locked gas giant exoplanet WASP-94A b and identify asymmetry in its atmosphere. The morning limb is cooler and cloudy, while the evening limb is hotter and exhibits gaseous H2O absorption features. We interpret this difference as due to the formation of cloud droplets near the morning limb, which evaporate during circulation to the evening limb. The dominant aerosols are clouds cycling between the day and night sides of the atmosphere, not photochemical hazes.

What carries the argument

Limb-resolved transmission spectroscopy that separates morning and evening terminator signals to reveal temperature-driven cloud condensation and evaporation.

If this is right

  • Averaged transmission spectra of similar planets will yield systematically incorrect molecular abundances unless the morning-evening asymmetry is resolved.
  • Aerosol models for tidally locked gas giants must prioritize condensation-evaporation cycles over photochemical haze production.
  • Atmospheric circulation must transport condensates from night to day side fast enough for evaporation to occur before the evening terminator.
  • The same morning-cloudy, evening-clear pattern should appear in other hot Jupiters observed with sufficient spectral resolution and phase coverage.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Day-night cloud cycling may be widespread enough to affect radius and temperature inferences for the broader population of inflated hot Jupiters.
  • Higher-resolution spectroscopy from future facilities could map the exact longitude where clouds evaporate and test circulation speeds directly.
  • The bias in abundance retrievals will be largest for planets with the strongest day-night temperature contrasts.

Load-bearing premise

The observed spectral differences between the two limbs are produced by temperature differences driving cloud condensation and evaporation rather than by limb-to-limb variations in chemistry, dynamics, or unaccounted instrumental effects.

What would settle it

Repeated observations of WASP-94A b that show no limb asymmetry or that reveal the same cloud features on both limbs at the same temperature would falsify the cycling-cloud interpretation.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2505.10910 by Carlos Gasc\'on, Daniel Thorngren, David K. Sing, Duncan A. Christie, \'Eric H\'ebrard, Erin M. May, Guangwei Fu, Harry Baskett, Henrique Reggiani, Jacob Lustig-Yaeger, Jayesh Goyal, Joshua D. Lothringer, Katherine A. Bennett, Kevin B. Stevenson, Kevin C. Schlaufman, K. S. Sotzen, Lakeisha M. Ramos Rosado, L. C. Mayorga, Le-Chris Wang, Maria Zamyatina, Mei Ting Mak, Mercedes L\'opez-Morales, Natalie H. Allen, Nathan Mayne, Patrick McCreery, Sagnick Mukherjee, Stephen P. Schmidt, Zafar Rustamkulov.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Transit light curves of WASP-94A b show limb asymme￾try. (A) shows the broadband light curve between 1.35-1.5 𝜇m with black points. The asymmetric limb planet model fit to the light curve is shown with the blue line and the spherical planet model fit with the red line. The time period of ingress and egress are shown with the shaded gray region. The asymmetric limb model fits the light curve better at a 6𝜎 … view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Transmission spectrum of the morning and evening limbs of WASP-94A b. (A) shows the observing geometry of the two limbs of WASP-94A b and its host star (to scale). (B) shows the nightside cloud map of WASP-94A b predicted through a 3D general circulation model. (C) shows the observed transmission spectrum of the evening terminator of the planet with red points along with the best-fit model. The key atmosph… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Constrained temperature and cloud structure of the morning and evening limbs. (A) shows the median and 1𝜎 envelopes on the retrieved temperature-pressure profile for the morning and evening terminators in blue and red, respectively. Condensation curves corresponding to MgSiO3, Fe, and MnS clouds are shown with the red, green, and yellow dashed lines, respectively. The 𝑇 (𝑃) profiles of the two terminators … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Effect of limb asymmetry on inferred composition of WASP-94A b. (A) shows a comparison of the observed transmission spectrum of the evening terminator of WASP-94A b in red with the 1D spectrum extracted assuming the planet is spherically symmetric in black. The red and black shaded regions show the 1𝜎 envelope on the retrieved model spectrum in each case. The scale height of the spherical spectrum gets art… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Observed and modeled white light curve. (A) shows the observed white light curve of WASP-94A b from the FIREFLy reduc￾tion with black points and the best-fit asymmetric limb model from catwoman is shown with the blue line. (B) shows the binned and un￾binned residuals of the fit, that have a median absolute deviation of 76 ppm. detrend the white light curve with a linear with time systematics model. We use … view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Observed and modeled spectroscopic light curves. (A) shows the observed spectroscopic light curves as a heat map. (B) shows the model fits to the spectroscopic light curves as a heat map with FIREFLy. code makes use of existing Eureka! functions and follows the same framework as other instrument modes. In Stage 1, we made no changes to the Eureka! wrapper around STScI’s official jwst software, version 1.15… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Effect of limb darkening on the transmission spectrum. (A) shows the 𝑢+ parameter when fitted freely for each spectroscopic channel with black points. The 𝑢+ parameter from a 3D stellar model with and without offset are shown with the blue lines. (B) shows the same for the 𝑢− parameter. (C) and (D) show the measured transmission spectrum of the morning and evening limbs, respectively. The blue points in ea… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Standard deviation of residuals vs. bin size plots showing correlated noise behavior in spectroscopic light curves. (A), (B), (C), and (D) show the plots for four randomly selected spectroscopic channels. Each plot shows that neglegible correlated noise is present in the spectroscopic light curves. Parameter Units Prior Median ±1𝜎 𝑇eq K U (800, 2100) 1509 69 𝛿𝑇eq K U (0, −600) -448 78 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝜅IR) - U (−2.0, +… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Alternative evidence of limb asymmetry in spectroscopic light curves. (A) shows the mid-transit time (𝑇0) as a function of wavelength with black points, when all the spectroscopic light curves were fit with the spherical planet model allowing for an indepen￾dently fitted 𝑇0 for each channel. The fitted 𝑇0 compensates for the limb asymmetry of the planet and thus shows molecular features in H2O absorption b… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Contamination of the 2nd order trace. Contamination of the 2nd order trace of the stellar spectrum is highlighted with red boxes on the detector image. The green box is the only small region from which we could reliably extract transmission spectrum. The wavelengths of each region of the 1st and 2nd order trace are marked on the blue line. Our POSEIDON retrievals on the spherical transmission spectrum of … view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: 2nd order transmission spectrum. Extracted 2nd order spectrum is shown with the star points and is compared with the 1st order spectrum of each planet limb (circular points). Parameter Value Units Inner radius 1.10 × 108 m Domain height 2.50 × 107 m Semi-major axis 0.0554 au Orbital period 3.95 Earth days Rotation rate 1.84 × 10−5 rad s−1 Surface gravity at inner boundary 4.74 m s−2 Specific gas constant … view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Comparison between spectrum of morning and evening limbs from different reduction pipelines. (A) shows the comparison of the evening limb spectrum measured from three different reduction pipelines – FIREFLy, Eureka!, and Fu. (B) shows the same for the morning limb spectrum. (C) and (D) show the residuals between the spectrum derived from each pipeline for the evening and morning limbs, respectively. 0 2 4… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Correlation between mid-transit time and difference in transit depths between limbs. The difference in the transit depths between the morning and evening limbs at 1.4 𝜇m from the three data reduction pipelines is shown as a function of the constrained mid-transit time from the white light curves from each pipeline. The difference between the mid-transit time from a pipeline and the mid￾transit time from t… view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Comparison between spherical planet spectrum between pipelines. (A) shows a comparison between the spectrum measured for the planet assuming a spherical planet model between the three pipelines. (B) shows the residuals between the pipelines. (𝜎r). We fix the 𝜎r , or width of the distribution, to 0.01. This is to populate the atmosphere with a narrow particle size distribution for the aerosols. The aerosol… view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Retrieved spectrum for each planet limb. The retrieved median spectrum for the evening and morning limbs along with their 1𝜎 and 2𝜎 envelopes are shown in red and blue, respectively. The observed evening and morning spectrum are also shown with red and blue points, respectively. formulation of [140] with modifications introduced by [141] and [142]. The code leverages planetary and stellar parameters to fi… view at source ↗
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Corner plot for simultaneous retrieval on both limbs. The posterior distribution for each parameter along with their cross￾correlations are shown for the 1.5D simultaneous retrieval on the spectrum of the evening and morning limbs of the planet [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p024_16.png] view at source ↗
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Contribution function for the evening and morning limb spectrum. (A) shows the contribution function as a function of pressure and wavelength from the best-fit 1.5D retrieval model for the evening limb. The contribution function is derived from the derivative of the trans￾mittance with pressure for each wavelength value. (B) shows the contribution function for the morning limb spectrum. 10 8 10 7 10 6 10 … view at source ↗
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Constraints on Chemical Abundances. (A) shows the constraints on the chemical abundances of various atmospheric gases on the evening limb of the planet. (B) shows the constraints on the morning limb. Note that we detect H2O from the spectrum but the chemical equilib￾rium assumption allows us to predict the abundance constraints on the other gases [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p025_18.png] view at source ↗
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Retrieved spectrum for the spherical planet spectrum. The retrieved median spectrum for the spherical planet spectrum along with its 1𝜎 and 2𝜎 envelopes are shown in black. The measured spherical planet spectrum is shown with black points [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p026_19.png] view at source ↗
Figure 20
Figure 20. Figure 20: Corner plot for 1D retrieval on the spherical spectrum of the planet. The posterior distribution for each parameter along with their cross-correlations are shown for the 1D PICASO retrieval on the spherical spectrum of the planet [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p027_20.png] view at source ↗
Figure 21
Figure 21. Figure 21: Results of the patchy 2D cloud retrieval with POSEIDON. (A) shows the retrieved median spectrum along with the 1𝜎 and 2𝜎 regions in blue, along with the measured spherical planet spectrum as unfilled black points. (B), (C), and (D) shows histograms of the posterior for the planet’s atmospheric metallicity, C/O ratio, and cloud coverage fraction, respectively [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p028_21.png] view at source ↗
Figure 22
Figure 22. Figure 22: 3D atmospheric structure from GCM simulations of WASP-94Ab. (A) shows zonal-mean zonal advective timescale (colour scale) as a function of pressure and latitude. (B) shows the 𝑇 (𝑃) profiles, at latitude 0 ◦ , for the morning (blue) and evening (red) terminators. Condensa￾tion curves for MgSiO3, Fe, and MnS are also shown with the dashed lines. (C) shows the zonal advective timescale at 1 mbar (colour sca… view at source ↗
Figure 23
Figure 23. Figure 23: Vertical mixing and cloud properties from GCM simulations of WASP-94A b. (A) shows a comparison of the global mean 𝐾zz profile from the GCM (black dashed line) with the constraints on 𝐾zz from the limb asymmetry observations shown as the blue shaded region. The measured 𝐾zz profile for Jupiter from [123] is shown with the orange line. (B) shows the cloud optical depth map at 6 mbar obtained by post-proces… view at source ↗
Figure 24
Figure 24. Figure 24: Slope of morning limb spectrum. The corner plot with panels (A), (B), and (C) show constraints obtained on the slope 𝑆 of the morn￾ing limb transmission spectrum. Panel (D) shows the morning limb spectrum with blue points and 500 samples of the fitted parametric model with the blue lines. The order 2 spectrum of the morning limb, which was not used in the fitting, is also shown with the pink star points … view at source ↗
Figure 25
Figure 25. Figure 25: Fit of the morning limb spectrum with various aerosol species. The blue points show the spectrum of the morning limb. The dif￾ferent colored lines show the best-fit model with that aerosol species to the morning limb spectrum. The logarithm of the Bayesian evidence associated with each aerosol species is also shown in the legend. The cloud model provides the best-fit to the spectrum with the highest evide… view at source ↗
Figure 26
Figure 26. Figure 26: Detection of Helium outflow from WASP-94A b. (A) shows the excess transit depth of WASP-94A b due to metastable He absorption at 1.083 𝜇m with black points. The best-fit model of mass-loss from WASP-94A b’s atmosphere is shown with the blue solid line. (B) compares the light curve within the He absorption band with the light curve just outside it, showing the excess transit depth at a light curve level. (… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The spectra of exoplanet atmospheres are affected by aerosols (clouds and hazes) of uncertain origin. Proposed aerosol formation mechanisms include gas condensation or photochemical reactions. We measure the transmission spectrum of the tidally locked gas giant exoplanet WASP-94A b and identify asymmetry in its atmosphere. The morning limb is cooler and cloudy, while the evening limb is hotter and exhibits gaseous H$_2$O absorption features. We interpret this difference as due to the formation of cloud droplets near the morning limb, which evaporate during circulation to the evening limb. The dominant aerosols are clouds cycling between the day and night sides of the atmosphere, not photochemical hazes. The resulting asymmetry can severely bias chemical abundance measurements, unless limb-resolved spectroscopy is available.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript reports transmission spectroscopy of the tidally locked gas giant WASP-94A b, revealing a clear limb asymmetry: the morning limb is cooler with suppressed spectral features indicative of clouds, while the evening limb is hotter and shows gaseous H2O absorption. The authors interpret the asymmetry as arising from cloud droplet formation near the morning terminator that evaporates during circulation to the evening side, concluding that the dominant aerosols are day-night cycling clouds rather than photochemical hazes. They note that such asymmetry can bias chemical abundance measurements unless limb-resolved data are used.

Significance. If the central interpretation holds, the result provides observational evidence for condensation-evaporation cycling of clouds in a hot Jupiter atmosphere and demonstrates how unresolved limb asymmetry can systematically bias retrieved abundances. The work is grounded in new observational data with a direct physical interpretation of aerosol origin, which is a strength for the field of exoplanet atmospheric characterization.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract and §4] Abstract and §4 (Atmospheric retrievals): The claim that photochemical hazes are ruled out in favor of cycling clouds rests on the observed morning-limb cooling and feature suppression, but no quantitative model comparison (e.g., Bayes factors, chi-squared differences, or posterior odds) between cloud-condensation and haze-production parameterizations is shown; this is load-bearing for the uniqueness of the mechanism assignment.
  2. [§5] §5 (Discussion): The interpretation that the asymmetry cannot arise from limb-dependent chemistry, 3D dynamical gradients, or unaccounted systematics without invoking condensation-evaporation requires explicit forward-model tests against haze or GCM predictions; the current text invokes the temperature-driven cloud scenario without demonstrating that alternatives are excluded by the data.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] The abstract mentions the asymmetry but does not report error bars on the limb-specific temperatures or feature depths; adding these would improve clarity of the result strength.
  2. Notation for the morning/evening limb spectra could be standardized across figures and text to avoid ambiguity in the retrieval setup.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive and detailed comments, which help clarify the strength of our conclusions. We address each major comment below and will revise the manuscript with additional discussion and tempered claims where appropriate.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract and §4] Abstract and §4 (Atmospheric retrievals): The claim that photochemical hazes are ruled out in favor of cycling clouds rests on the observed morning-limb cooling and feature suppression, but no quantitative model comparison (e.g., Bayes factors, chi-squared differences, or posterior odds) between cloud-condensation and haze-production parameterizations is shown; this is load-bearing for the uniqueness of the mechanism assignment.

    Authors: We agree that explicit quantitative model comparison would strengthen the uniqueness of the mechanism assignment. Our separate limb retrievals show the morning limb requires substantial cloud opacity to suppress features at lower temperature, while the evening limb shows clear H2O absorption at higher temperature; this temperature dependence aligns with condensation-evaporation but is not directly compared via Bayes factors to haze models. We will revise the abstract and §4 to qualify the claim that hazes are ruled out, add a qualitative discussion of why the observed asymmetry favors cycling clouds over uniform hazes, and note the absence of formal model odds as a limitation. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [§5] §5 (Discussion): The interpretation that the asymmetry cannot arise from limb-dependent chemistry, 3D dynamical gradients, or unaccounted systematics without invoking condensation-evaporation requires explicit forward-model tests against haze or GCM predictions; the current text invokes the temperature-driven cloud scenario without demonstrating that alternatives are excluded by the data.

    Authors: We acknowledge that explicit forward-model tests would more rigorously exclude alternatives. The ~200 K limb temperature difference retrieved from the data is difficult to reconcile with chemistry or dynamics alone without a condensation process, and we will expand §5 to reference existing hot-Jupiter GCM studies that predict morning-side cloud formation. We will also discuss why limb-dependent photochemistry is unlikely given similar UV exposure on both limbs. Full new GCM-aerosol simulations are beyond the scope of this observational study and will be noted as future work. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: observational interpretation stands on data without self-referential reduction

full rationale

The paper reports an observed limb asymmetry in the transmission spectrum of WASP-94A b, with the morning limb cooler and cloudier and the evening limb showing H2O features. It offers a physical interpretation that this arises from cloud condensation near the morning limb followed by evaporation. No equations, fitted parameters, or derivations are presented that reduce this interpretation to the input data by construction. No self-citations are invoked as load-bearing uniqueness theorems, and no ansatz or renaming of known results is used to generate the central claim. The result is therefore self-contained as an empirical finding plus qualitative interpretation, consistent with the absence of any quotable reduction step.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

Abstract-only review yields no explicit free parameters, axioms, or invented entities; all quantities rest on standard assumptions of transmission spectroscopy and 1D/2D atmospheric models not detailed here.

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Reference graph

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