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The TOI-1117 Multi-planetary System: 3 sub-Neptunes, 1 in both the Neptunian Desert and Radius Valley

T0 review · 3 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-08-07 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read The paper establishes that TOI-1117 hosts three sub-Neptune planets, the innermost of which occupies both the Neptunian Desert and the Radius Valley, and argues from photoevaporation modeling that this hot Neptune is water-rich rather…

desk verdict Solid three-planet discovery with a real but fixable overstatement in the abstract's water-rich claim. read the letter →

arxiv 2506.05521 v1 pith:GXN2ALCZ submitted 2025-06-05 astro-ph.EP

Isobel S. Lockley , David J. Armstrong , Jorge Fernández Fernández , Sarah Millholland , Henrik Knierim , Elisa Delgado Mena , Sergio Sousa , Karen A. Collins
show 28 more authors
Cristilyn N. Watkins Steve B. Howell Vardan Adibekyan Ravit Helled Carl Ziegler Daniel Bayliss César Briceño Amadeo Castro-González Catherine A. Clark Kevin I. Collins Jessie L. Christiansen Kaiming Cui Rodrigo Diaz Jon M. Jenkins Marcelo A. F. Keniger Michelle Kunimoto Nicholas Law Jorge Lillo-Box Colin Littlefield Andrew W. Mann Morgan A. Mitchell Louise D. Nielsen José Rodrigues Pam Rowden Nuno C. Santos Sara Seager Peter J. Wheatley Joshua Winn
This is my paper
classification astro-ph.EP
keywords sub-NeptuneNeptunianDesertRadiusValleyphotoevaporationradialvelocitytransitphotometrymean-motionresonanceplanetinteriors
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper reports the discovery of three sub-Neptune planets around TOI-1117, a Sun-like star, using TESS and LCOGT transit photometry combined with 134 HARPS radial velocities. The innermost planet, TOI-1117b, is a short-period hot Neptune with a measured mass and radius, placing it simultaneously in two sparsely populated regions of exoplanet parameter space: the Neptunian Desert and the Radius Valley. The two outer companions are non-transiting, and dynamical simulations show the system is only stable if the orbits are nearly circular and near a 2:1 resonance between b and c. Photoevaporation modeling of TOI-1117b shows that an in-situ rocky core with a H/He envelope would be stripped of gas within 100 Myr, so the low density of the planet instead favors a water-rich interior. If correct, the system offers a rare window onto how hot Neptunes can form and survive in the desert.

What carries the argument

The argument runs on three coupled pieces of machinery. A joint fit in the exoplanet framework combines TESS and LCOGT light curves with HARPS radial velocities to derive the stellar and planetary parameters, with stability calculations from rebound and spock (instability times) and MEGNO (chaos indicator) ruling out non-circular orbits. A resonance analysis tracks four critical resonant angles of the 2:1 mean-motion resonance over 4,000 N-body integrations to test whether b/c and c/d librate. For the interior, a four-layer model (iron core, rocky mantle, water layer, H/He envelope) is sampled with nested sampling, and the photoevolver code couples stellar X-ray evolution, envelope structure, and atmospheric escape to simulate the photoevaporation history from 10 Myr to 10 Gyr. The photoevaporation simulations are the decisive step: they strip every H/He envelope within 100 Myr, leaving water-rich interiors as the surviving explanation for the planet's low density.

What would settle it

A transmission spectrum of TOI-1117b that shows a clear hydrogen-helium atmosphere—for example strong H-alpha absorption or Rayleigh scattering extending to small scale heights—would contradict the water-rich no-H/He conclusion, since the photoevaporation simulations only strip H/He under the in-situ assumption. Conversely, a spectrum showing strong steam absorption with no hydrogen features would confirm it.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

TOI-1117 hosts three sub-Neptune planets. Planet b transits with a period of 2.228 days, a mass of 8.90 Earth masses and a radius of 2.46 Earth radii, making it a hot Neptune that falls in both the Neptunian Desert and the Radius Valley. Planets c and d are detected in HARPS radial velocities with minimum masses of about 7.5 and 9.1 Earth masses and periods of 4.58 and 8.67 days. The eccentricities are consistent with zero; N-body integrations show that eccentricities above roughly 0.2–0.27 would destabilize the system within 1 Gyr. The b/c period ratio lies close to 2:1, with about 70 percent of simulated initial conditions showing libration of a critical resonant angle. Photoevaporation simulations find that any hydrogen-helium envelope on an in-situ planet b is lost within the first 100 Myr, contradicting the observed radius; a structure with a water-rich layer and no H/He envelope instead matches the data. The paper therefore argues for a water-rich interior for TOI-1117b and a quiescent, low-eccentricity migration origin for the system.

Load-bearing premise

The conclusion that TOI-1117b is water-rich depends on the assumption that the planet formed in situ at its present distance of 0.033 AU, because the photoevaporation simulations assume the planet started there with a primordial H/He envelope; if the planet formed beyond the snow line and migrated inward, its initial envelope mass, accretion history, and X-ray exposure would differ, and the rocky-with-envelope scenario would not be ruled out.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • TOI-1117b becomes a rare benchmark hot Neptune with precisely measured mass and radius at the intersection of the Neptunian Desert and the Radius Valley, and it is bright enough for JWST atmospheric characterization (ESM = 11.7).
  • The stability analysis shows the three orbits must be nearly circular, so the eccentricity upper limits from the radial velocities are physically meaningful rather than unconstrained.
  • A near 2:1 resonance between b and c (70 percent of stable solutions librate) supports convergent disk migration rather than violent high-eccentricity migration.
  • Photoevaporation modeling implies TOI-1117b has a water-rich layer of about 33 percent of its mass with no H/He envelope, making it a steam- or ocean-world candidate.
  • The system's peas-in-a-pod uniformity (Q = 0.004, C = 0.005) indicates a quiescent formation pathway, linking hot Neptunes in the desert to the low-eccentricity migration channel proposed for ultra-short-period rocky planets.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the water-rich interpretation survives, TOI-1117b's atmosphere should be metal-enriched; a transmission spectrum searching for water steam rather than hydrogen features would discriminate between the water-rich and rocky-plus-envelope scenarios.
  • The discovery implies that the Neptunian Desert may hide a population of multi-planet systems produced by gentle migration; future surveys should search desert planets for companions rather than treating them as isolated objects.
  • The MEGNO inclination analysis favors near-coplanar orbits for c and d, which means precise transit timing or future astrometry could measure their true masses and test whether the system is genuinely peas-in-a-pod in a stronger sense.
  • The in-situ versus ex-situ ambiguity for planet b could be probed with a Rossiter–McLaughlin measurement of the stellar obliquity; a low obliquity would support quiescent disk migration, while a high obliquity would suggest a more chaotic past.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 6 minor

Summary. The paper presents the discovery of three sub-Neptune planets around the Sun-like star TOI-1117. The inner planet b is transiting, with period 2.228 d, mass 8.90+0.95-0.96 M⊕ and radius 2.46+0.13-0.12 R⊕, placing it in the Neptunian Desert and Radius Valley. Two additional non-transiting signals are identified in HARPS radial velocities at 4.579 d and 8.665 d. The authors validate the transiting planet with TESS and LCOGT photometry, speckle imaging, and centroid analysis, and justify the two outer planets via periodogram significance, WAIC model comparison, and the absence of activity-indicator correlations. The paper further presents N-body stability simulations (SPOCK and MEGNO), a resonant-angle analysis, interior structure retrieval, and photoevaporation simulations with the photoevolver code. The authors conclude that the system must be nearly circular for long-term stability, that b and c may be near a 2:1 resonance, and that photoevaporation favors a water-rich composition for b if it formed in situ.

Significance. If the three-planet system is confirmed, TOI-1117 is a valuable addition to the small sample of Neptunian Desert planets in multi-planet architectures. The combination of a precisely characterized transiting planet and two stable RV companions makes the system a useful test bed for formation models of hot Neptunes, including high-eccentricity migration versus disk migration. The paper's strengths include the thorough false-positive checks for the transit (ground-based LCOGT detection, speckle imaging, TESS-cont contamination analysis), the use of WAIC for model comparison, and the explicit dynamical stability analysis that constrains eccentricities and mutual inclinations. The photoevaporation modeling addresses a relevant question, although the compositional conclusion is conditional and, in its current form, partially circular; the discovery itself is not affected by this issue. The use of publicly available TESS, LCOGT, and HARPS data and open-source tools (exoplanet, rebound, spock, photoevolver) enhances reproducibility, though the custom analysis code is only available on request.

major comments (3)
  1. [Abstract; Table 4] The masses quoted for TOI-1117c and TOI-1117d in the Abstract (M_c=7.46+1.43-1.62 M⊕ and M_d=9.06+2.07-1.78 M⊕) disagree with Table 4, which reports M_p sin i = 8.78+1.19-1.21 M⊕ and 10.71+1.59-1.58 M⊕ for these planets. Furthermore, the 'Mass (See Section 4.1.2)' rows in Table 4 list lower bounds of 7.57 and 9.19 M⊕, which are below the corresponding minimum masses implied by the RV semi-amplitudes; a true mass cannot be smaller than M_p sin i. These inconsistencies are central to the discovery claim and must be reconciled before publication.
  2. [Section 4.4; Section 5; Abstract] The photoevaporation conclusion is explicitly conditional on in-situ formation in Section 4.4 ('providing that TOI-1117b formed in-situ, rules out the rocky scenario and instead favours the water scenario'). The Abstract omits this caveat and states that rocky core and H/He atmosphere models are 'inconsistent with observations' while water-rich scenarios are 'favoured'. Section 5 then argues that in-situ formation is unlikely because 'photoevaporation analysis (Section 4.4) shows TOI-1117b is likely to host water', using the water-rich inference to reject the very assumption on which it depends. This is circular. If TOI-1117b formed beyond the snow line and migrated inward, its initial envelope mass, accretion history, and X-ray exposure time could differ, so the rocky/H-He scenario is not robustly ruled out. The Abstract and Discussion should present the water-rich preference only as a conditional result.
  3. [Section 4.4, Figure 15] The description of the 'water scenario' is internally inconsistent. The text defines the water scenario as a rocky core and water-rich layer 'with no H/He atmosphere', but the following paragraph says 'We evolved both the rocky and water scenarios with a number of starting H/He mass fractions ranging from 1% to 10%', and Figure 15 shows the evolution of the H/He envelope mass fraction for both panels. Either the water scenario simulation actually includes an initial H/He envelope, contradicting the definition, or the figure and text are mislabeled. This ambiguity affects the interpretation of the photoevaporation results and should be clarified.
minor comments (6)
  1. [Abstract; Section 3.2] The eccentricity 'upper limits' quoted in the Abstract (e_b=0.11, e_c=0.29, e_d=0.24) are not defined as confidence intervals; please specify whether these are 1σ, 95%, or other limits.
  2. [Section 4.2] The claim that TOI-1117b and c are 'likely to be in a near 2:1 resonance' is stronger than the analysis supports: only about 70% of the initial conditions have libration amplitude <180° for one of the two critical angles, with a minimum libration amplitude of about 23°, and the <180° criterion admits very wide librations. Please soften the wording or provide the full distribution of libration amplitudes.
  3. [Figure 13] The labels 'EV' and 'NU' in Figure 13 are not defined in the caption or text; please explain these abbreviations or remove them.
  4. [Section 6] In the final paragraph of Section 6, 'The circular eccentricities support disk migration' should be reworded, for example 'The near-circular orbits support disk migration', since eccentricities are not themselves circular.
  5. [Table 4] The longitude of ascending node Ω for TOI-1117b is completely unconstrained (−0.003±2.135 rad) and has no effect on the other parameters; consider removing this row or marking it as unconstrained.
  6. [Section 8] The Data Availability statement says the analysis code 'can be made available upon reasonable request to the author'; for reproducibility, please consider depositing the code in a public repository.

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged · score 4.0 of 10

The three-planet discovery is independent and well supported; only the photoevaporation/water-rich argument is circular because it rejects the in-situ assumption on which it depends.

  1. other [Section 4.4 (Photoevaporation history) and Section 5 (Discussion)]
    "Our simulations therefore suggest the planet should not host a H/He envelope in the present day, which, providing that TOI-1117b formed in-situ, rules out the rocky scenario and instead favours the water scenario for TOI-1117b. ... However, it is unlikely that TOI-1117b formed in situ at 0.033AU because photoevaporation analysis (Section 4.4) shows TOI-1117b is likely to host water and water accretion is expected to occur beyond the snow line."

    The photoevaporation conclusion that the water-rich scenario is favoured is explicitly conditional on the assumption that TOI-1117b formed in-situ. Section 5 then uses that same conditional conclusion as evidence against in-situ formation, arguing that in-situ formation is unlikely because the photoevaporation analysis shows the planet is likely to host water. The water-rich inference is therefore used to reject the very premise on which it depends. The abstract omits the caveat and presents the conditional result as an unconditional finding, which strengthens the circularity in the paper's interpretive chain. The planet detection itself is not affected by this step.

full rationale

The discovery of the three sub-Neptunes is self-contained and not circular. The transit and RV signals are jointly fitted with independent photometric and spectroscopic data; model selection uses WAIC; eccentricity, inclination, and resonance analyses use N-body simulations with codes such as rebound and spock, and the photoevaporation modelling uses forward models (photoevolver, Johnstone et al. X-ray histories, Chen & Rogers envelopes, Kubyshkina et al. escape rates) rather than refitting the observed mass and radius. The one genuine circular step is the water-rich/in-situ argument: Section 4.4 states the water-rich preference holds only 'providing that TOI-1117b formed in-situ', and Section 5 then uses that same preference to reject in-situ formation. This is a logical circle in a secondary interpretive claim, not in the central detection claim, so the overall circularity score is modest.

Assumptions & free parameters 6 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

Central physical results rest on standard exoplanet methods. The main free parameters are nuisance or model-input parameters, not hidden knobs tuned to force the conclusion. The most consequential choices are the fixed circular orbits and the assumed in-situ formation for the photoevaporation interpretation.

free parameters (6)
  • RV jitter = ln(jitter) = 1.50 (+0.41, -0.53), corresponding to about 4.5 m/s
    Fitted together with the Keplerian signals in the joint model. It is a nuisance parameter and does not change the detection, but it affects the significance of the RV companions.
  • Planet orbital eccentricities = e = 0 for all planets (fixed)
    The eccentric joint fit gave values consistent with zero, and the final fit fixed them to zero based on the stability analysis. If the orbits are actually eccentric, the derived minimum masses and the near-resonance claim would shift.
  • Limb darkening coefficients = u1 = 0.61 (+0.25, -0.26), u2 = 0.64 (+0.24, -0.32)
    Fitted with Kipping (2013) priors in the transit model. They have a small effect on the derived planetary radius.
  • Initial H/He envelope mass fraction in photoevaporation simulations = 1%, 2%, 5%, and 10% starting mass fractions
    These are assumed initial conditions, not measured. The conclusion that a H/He envelope is stripped within 100 Myr depends on this range and on the adopted X-ray history percentiles.
  • Interior water mass fraction = 0.20 ± 0.12 (free model), 0.35 ± 0.09 (no-atmosphere model)
    Determined by fitting the four-layer interior model to the measured mass and radius. The fit is degenerate, so the water-rich interpretation is not uniquely constrained by the mass-radius data alone.
  • Stellar age = 4.42 ± 1.50 Gyr
    Adopted from chemical clocks using eight abundance ratios; the alternative gyrochronology estimate is about 7 Gyr. This choice affects the photoevaporation integration time and the stability interpretation.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption The three HARPS periodic signals are planetary and not caused by stellar activity or instrumental artifacts.
    Supported by periodograms and activity indicator checks in Section 3.2, but the non-transiting planets c and d cannot be confirmed geometrically and could in principle be mimicked by coherent activity or an alternative Keplerian configuration.
  • domain assumption The stability and resonance simulations assume coplanar, near-circular orbits.
    Sections 4.1 and 4.2 assume coplanarity and very small initial eccentricities. Circularity is inferred because non-zero eccentricities produce instability, but it is not directly measured.
  • domain assumption TOI-1117b formed in situ at 0.033 AU for the photoevaporation interpretation.
    Section 4.4 states the rocky H/He scenario is ruled out only 'providing that TOI-1117b formed in-situ'. A formation beyond the snow line followed by inward migration would change the initial envelope and water content.
  • domain assumption The interior is a differentiated four-layer structure (iron core, rocky mantle, water layer, H/He atmosphere) with the adopted equations of state.
    Section 4.3 lists the EOS and notes simplified assumptions, no interlayer mixing, and no heavy-element pollution of the atmosphere. These choices affect the inferred water fraction.
  • domain assumption The adopted stellar mass, radius, and age are accurate enough for the orbital and evolution modeling.
    Section 3.1 obtains these from spectroscopic analysis, Torres calibrations, and chemical clocks. The age in particular has a broad uncertainty and an alternative gyrochronology estimate.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of The TOI-1117 Multi-planetary System: 3 sub-Neptunes, 1 in both the Neptunian Desert and Radius Valley." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/GXN2ALCZ

@misc{pith2026250605521,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: The TOI-1117 Multi-planetary System: 3 sub-Neptunes, 1 in both the Neptunian Desert and Radius Valley},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/GXN2ALCZ}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2506.05521}
}
abstract

We present the discovery of three sub-Neptune planets around TOI-1117, a Sun-like star with mass $0.97\pm0.02M_{\odot}$, radius $1.05\pm0.03R_{\odot}$, age $4.42\pm1.50$ Gyr and effective temperature $5635\pm62$ K. Light curves from TESS and LCOGT show a transiting sub-Neptune with a $2.23$ day period, mass $M_b=8.90_{-0.96}^{+0.95}M_{\oplus}$ and radius $R_b=2.46_{-0.12}^{+0.13}R_{\oplus}$. This is a rare 'hot Neptune' that falls within the parameter spaces known as the 'Neptunian Desert' and the 'Radius Valley'. Two more planetary signals are detected in HARPS radial velocities, revealing two non-transiting planets with minimum masses $M_c=7.46_{-1.62}^{+1.43}M_{\oplus}$ and $M_d=9.06_{-1.78}^{+2.07}M_{\oplus}$, and periods of $4.579\pm0.004$ and $8.67\pm0.01$ days. The eccentricities were poorly constrained by the HARPS data, with upper limits $e_b=0.11$, $e_c=0.29$, and $e_d=0.24$. However, dynamical simulations of the TOI-1117 system, suggest that the orbits must be nearly circular to be stable. The simulations also show that TOI-1117b and c are likely to be in a near 2:1 resonance. The multi-planet nature of TOI-1117 makes it a more complex case for formation theories of the Neptunian Desert and Radius Valley, as current theories such as high-eccentricity migration are too turbulent to produce a stable, non-eccentric, multi-planet system. Moreover, analysis of TOI-1117b's photoevaporation history found rocky core and H/He atmosphere models to be inconsistent with observations, whilst water-rich scenarios were favoured.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2506.05521 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. The average image across the time series in the Target Pixel File (TPF) for TESS sector 39; showing TOI-1117 (white cross), the aperture mask used by SPOC (red squares), and other nearby Gaia DR3 sources (red circles). Created using TPFPLOTTER (Aller et al. 2020) photometry. We used the TESS-cont algorithm2 (Castro-González et al. 2024b) to quantify its flux contribution, finding a flux fraction of 1.6% in the apert… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. The top panel shows the TESS normalised TESS PDCSAP light curves for Sectors 13 (30-min cadence) and 39 (2-min cadence) as a time series in reduced Barycentric Julian Day (BJD). The middle panel shows the same data phase-folded with the joint fit model (Section 3.2) plotted as a red line. The bottom panel shows the residuals of the joint fit. and a G2 spectral mask was applied to the weighted cross correlation funct… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. The top panel shows the detrended normalised LCO light curve with the results of the joint fit (Section 3.2) plotted as an red line. The bottom panel shows the residuals of the joint fit. 3 RESULTS 3.1 Stellar Analysis We used the ARES+MOOG methodology to estimate the stellar spectroscopic parameters (𝑇eff, log 𝑔, microturbulence, [Fe/H]). This methodology is described in detail in Sousa et al. (2021); Sousa (2014);… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (12 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The HARPS radial velocity data (grey points), shown as a time series, with the combined 3-planet model from the joint fit (Section 3.2) plotted as a red line. 30 20 10 0 10 20 Planet b Model (P = 2.228 days) HARPS De-trended Data 20 10 0 10 20 RV [m/s] Planet c Model (…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Top: Phasefolded residuals of the HARPS data after removing the TOI-1117 c and d signals, with the TOI-1117 b planetary signal plotted as a red line. Middle: Phasefolded residuals of the TOI-1117 b and d signals, with the TOI-1117 c planetary signal plotted as a red li…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Plot showing the 5𝜎 detection sensitivity and speckle auto￾correlation functions (inset) from the observations in Cousins I-band as de￾scribed in Section 2.4.1. The star, TOI-1117 was found to have no bright close companions within 3 ′′ . 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 an…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Plot showing the 5𝜎 speckle imaging contrast curves in both filters as a function of the angular separation out to 1.2 ′′. The inset shows the reconstructed 832nm image with a 1 ′′ scale bar. The star, TOI-1117, was found to have no close companions from the diffractio…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Lomb-Scargle Periodograms for the HARPS data, annotated with horizontal lines indicating the 10%, 1%, and 0.1% false-alarm levels (Baluev 2008). From top to bottom the periodograms show; the raw HARPS data with a significant peak at the expected orbital period of TOI-1…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Bar plot of differences in Widely Applicable Information Criterion (WAIC) values for 1-planet, 2-planet, and 4-planet joint fit models, computed relative to the 3-planet model used throughout this work. The prior distributions of the final joint fit are listed in [PIT…
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: The distribution of eccentricities for TOI-1117 b, c, and d for 500 simulated orbits (blue histogram) and those of which have a predicted instability time longer than 1Myr (orange histogram). The black dashed lines indicate the maximum eccentricities where the system …
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: The distribution of the MEGNO chaos indicator for simulated TOI-1117 systems with a full range of possible inclinations for TOI-1117 c and d. A MEGNO value of 2 corresponds to regular quasi-periodic orbits and higher values indicate chaotic orbits. Other system parame…
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Examples of the time evolution of the critical resonant angles for two 𝑁-body integrations that showed resonant trajectories. The top and bottom panels show the evolution of one of the resonant angles for the b/c pair and c/d pair, respectively. MNRAS 000, 1–16 (2024)…
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Mass-radius relation of exoplanets from the NASA Exoplanet Archive (https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu). The solid blue lines show the mass-radius relation for various hydrogen envelope com￾positions (Chen & Rogers 2016), the solid brown line for a pure rock co…
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Evolution of the radius of TOI-1117 b with a range of starting envelope mass fractions assuming rocky-H/He internal structure with no water (left panel), and a rock-water composition with no gaseous envelope (right panel). The planet’s radius as observed in the presen…
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Left: Plot of all NASA Exoplanet Archive planets with masses determined to better than 4𝜎 in radius-period space showing TOI-1117 b (red star) to fall within the Neptunian Desert (pale blue region). Middle: Mass-period plot showing TOI-1117 b (red), c (green), and d (…

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 7, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.