Pith. sign in

REVIEW 3 major objections 4 minor 1 cited by

How Do Ionizing Photons Escape from Star-Forming Galaxies?

T0 review · 3 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-06 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗ Review JSON

Pith's one-line read To find how ionizing photons escape, resolve a galaxy's star clusters

desk verdict A well-argued white paper for a UV IFU on HWO, but the central claim that such an IFU is 'uniquely achievable' is not backed by a sensitivity calculation for the IFU mode. read the letter →

arxiv 2506.23105 v1 pith:PP3BWMWY submitted 2025-06-29 astro-ph.GA astro-ph.IM

Cody Carr , Renyue Cen , Sophia Flury , Sally Oey , Stephan McCandliss , Allison Strom This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GAastro-ph.IM
keywords LymancontinuumescapefractionsuperstarclustersultravioletintegralfieldunitHabitableWorldsObservatorygalacticwindsepochofreionizationstellarfeedback
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper argues that the real bottleneck in understanding cosmic reionization is not how many ionizing photons galaxies produce, but how those photons escape through neutral gas and dust. It makes the case that escape is a multiscale process—photons are born in super star clusters only 1–100 parsecs across, yet must travel through the circumgalactic medium out to tens of kiloparsecs—and that current UV spectroscopy cannot see this structure. The paper claims that local star-forming galaxies are the best laboratories because ionizing radiation is blocked by intergalactic hydrogen at high redshift, but only a diffraction-limited ultraviolet integral field unit, uniquely achievable on the proposed Habitable Worlds Observatory, can map Lyman-continuum escape at the scale of the clusters that produce the photons. It then specifies the observables and instrument requirements needed to identify which feedback mechanism carves the escape channels and to turn escape-fraction diagnostics into calibrated tools for reading reionization-era galaxies. If the argument holds, HWO's instrument suite should include such a UV IFU, and the resulting cluster-scale measurements would directly test competing theories of how starlight ionizes the universe.

What carries the argument

The central object is an integral field unit (IFU)—a spectrograph that records a spectrum at every spatial position across a two-dimensional field—operating in the ultraviolet at the diffraction limit of a 6–8 meter telescope. At 1100 Å this yields roughly 3.5–4.6 milliarcsecond resolution, which at $z = 0.22$ translates to about 37–49 parsecs at three times the diffraction limit, just enough to isolate individual super star clusters. The argument runs through this instrument: cluster-scale maps of Lyman continuum, Lyman $\alpha$, higher Lyman series lines, and Si II, Si III, Si IV, C IV, and O VI metal lines would let radiative-transfer modeling constrain column densities, density and velocity fields, outflow rates, and opening angles, and would allow the empirical diagnostics (O32 and the FUV continuum slope $eta_{\rm UV}$) to be calibrated at the physical scale where escape actually happens.

What would settle it

Take ten local LyC leakers, resolve every super star cluster with a diffraction-limited UV IFU, and compare the cluster-resolved escape channels with galaxy-integrated O32 and $\beta_{\rm UV}$: if the integrated diagnostics predict the global escape fraction as well as the cluster maps do, the necessity claim fails. Alternatively, a systematic difference in ionizing spectra or ISM conditions between $z \sim 0.2$ leakers and JWST-discovered $z > 6$ galaxies would break the analog premise that the calibration is meant to transfer.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that determining how Lyman continuum photons leave star-forming galaxies requires spatially resolving the emission at the scale of individual super star clusters, 1–100 pc, while simultaneously tracing the neutral gas and outflows out to the circumgalactic medium at tens of kiloparsecs. Integrated spectra, such as those obtained with HST/COS, average over the very structure that controls escape: the Sunburst Arc shows that the O32 and $eta_{\rm UV}$ diagnostics differ sharply between leaking and non-leaking regions, while galaxy-averaged values blur the connection. The paper argues that only a diffraction-limited UV integral field unit—something it says is uniquely achievable with the proposed Habitable Worlds Observatory—can image dozens of clusters per galaxy, measure LyC, Lyman-series, and low- and warm-ionization metal lines in each, and thereby identify the dominant feedback mechanism and establish robust, physically grounded diagnostics of escape fraction that can be applied to the Epoch of Reionization.

Load-bearing premise

The whole enterprise assumes that nearby galaxies that leak Lyman-continuum radiation are faithful stand-ins for the galaxies that reionized the universe, so that what is learned by resolving them locally also applies at high redshift.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • Cluster-scale UV IFU observations would directly test whether radiation feedback from clusters younger than about 6 Myr or supernova-driven winds dominate Lyman-continuum escape, resolving a current disagreement between observations and simulations.
  • Mapping individual leaking and non-leaking clusters would establish O32 and $eta_{\rm UV}$ as physically grounded predictors of the escape fraction, instead of empirical correlations that wash out in integrated light.
  • The same data would measure outflow mass, momentum, energy rates, column densities, and velocity fields in both cold and warm-hot phases, tying galactic wind properties directly to the presence of escape channels.
  • Routine high-resolution spectroscopy of LyC leakers would become feasible—about 48 minutes on a 6-meter aperture versus roughly 11 hours with COS for the same signal-to-noise—making large statistical samples possible.
  • Diffraction-limited imaging at $z \sim 0.1$–$0.3$ would resolve physical scales of roughly 19–49 parsecs, matching super star cluster scales and allowing direct LyC measurement near 900 Å while mitigating Milky Way absorption.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the cluster-scale calibration succeeds, the same diagnostics could be applied to JWST grism and photometric observations of $z > 6$ galaxies, effectively transferring local physics to the reionization epoch—a step the paper motivates but does not itself execute.
  • The stated requirements—a 3 arcsecond field of view and spectral resolution $R = 15{,}000$–$100{,}000$—push instrument design toward a trade-off between spectral resolution and multiplexing; a multi-object spectrograph could partially substitute for the IFU for cluster samples but would lose the continuous mapping of winds and the CGM.
  • The paper's sensitivity estimates imply that even a 6-meter HWO could make high-resolution outflow spectroscopy of LyC leakers routine; a natural next step would be to simulate HWO observations of simulated LyC-leaking galaxies to optimize line lists, exposure times, and field-of-view requirements.
  • The central analog premise—that local leakers represent reionization-era galaxies—is testable: if JWST-era samples show systematically different ionizing spectra, ISM conditions, or stellar populations, the local calibration would need renormalization rather than direct transfer.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Signed reviews

No signed human review yet.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 4 minor

Summary. This paper is a white-paper-style science case arguing that progress on understanding Lyman continuum (LyC) escape requires spatially resolved ultraviolet spectroscopy spanning scales from individual super star clusters (1–100 pc) to the circumgalactic medium (up to ~100 kpc). It reviews lessons from the Low-z Lyman Continuum Survey and the Sunburst Arc, discusses the physical diagnostics (LyC, Lyα, Lyman-series, low- and warm-ionization metal lines, FUV SED), and codifies the required capabilities in Table 1: diffraction-limited 6–8 m UV imaging/spectroscopy, R=15,000–100,000, and a field of view of at least ~3 arcseconds. Section 5 presents an exposure-time estimate using the HWO UV Spectrograph simulator for integrated spectroscopy of the bright leaker J115205+340050, and concludes that high-resolution spectral imaging with a UV IFU is required and, according to the abstract, uniquely achievable with the Habitable Worlds Observatory.

Significance. If the central feasibility claim were quantitatively supported, the paper would give the community and the HWO study teams a concise, decadal-aligned scientific rationale for a UV IFU, with a clear requirements table. The paper's strengths include its careful synthesis of the LzLCS and Sunburst Arc results, the explicit simulation-motivated choice of R≈15,000–100,000 for outflow diagnostics, and the tabulated separation of necessary versus desired capabilities. The use of a public simulator for the integrated-spectroscopy exposure time is also a positive feature. However, the load-bearing assertion that a UV IFU is 'uniquely achievable' with HWO is not backed by any IFU sensitivity calculation or by a comparison of IFU and alternative multiplexed designs; at present the paper is a well-argued motivation rather than a demonstrated feasibility case.

major comments (3)
  1. [§5 and Table 1] The only quantitative exposure-time estimate in the paper is for integrated, non-IFU spectroscopy of J115205+340050, obtained with the HWO UV Spectrograph simulator (S/N=10 at ~48 min on a 6 m aperture at R≈30,000). The abstract's uniqueness claim, however, concerns a UV IFU that resolves individual super star clusters. Figure 3 implies roughly 20–30 clusters per galaxy, so the per-cluster LyC flux is about 20–50 times fainter than the integrated value; for the paper's own fiducial f_esc≈0.3% galaxies with 900 Å flux ≈1e-19 erg/s/cm2/Å, individual clusters would have fluxes of a few × 1e-21 erg/s/cm2/Å. No calculation, scaling, or simulator run is presented for the IFU case, nor is there a trade-off analysis between spatial sampling, spectral resolution (R=15,000–100,000), and the S/N≈5 requirement. Without such an estimate, the sentence 'necessary--and uniquely achievable with the proposed Habitable Worlds Observatory' has no quantitative support and reads as an assertion rather than a demonstrated conclusion.
  2. [Abstract and §5] The claim that a UV IFU is uniquely achievable with HWO is not established against alternatives, and the body text itself weakens the 'unique' part: §5 states that 'A multi-object spectrograph could also be valuable, requiring about 20–50 targets per galaxy,' and that the POLLUX spectropolarimeter would make high-resolution spectroscopy of galactic winds in LyC leakers routine. The paper offers no comparison of IFU versus MOS designs in terms of throughput, spectral multiplexing, sky subtraction, or implementation risk, so the reader cannot evaluate whether the IFU is genuinely the only route to the stated science goals. Either a comparative trade study should be added, or the abstract's 'uniquely achievable' wording should be moderated to something like 'an IFU would be a powerful and technically plausible capability.'
  3. [§2 and §4.0.1] The entire diagnostic program rests on the assumption that local LyC leakers at z≈0.1–0.4 are representative analogs of the galaxies that reionized the universe, but the paper asserts this premise without critical discussion or a validation test. This matters because the stated goal is to 'establish robust connections to high-redshift diagnostics': if the ISM/CGM geometry, stellar populations, or ionizing spectra of local leakers differ systematically from EoR galaxies, the cluster-scale measurements proposed here would not reliably constrain the escape fraction relevant to reionization. The paper should explicitly flag this systematic risk and propose a concrete check, for example comparing the local diagnostics against lensed EoR galaxies such as the Sunburst Arc or against simulations of z>6 galaxies, rather than treating local analogs as an unexamined proxy.
minor comments (4)
  1. [§2] The phrase 'measurements off LyC' should read 'measurements of LyC', and the final sentence of §1 ('This limitation hinders our understanding...') is missing a closing period.
  2. [§4.0.6] The line list appears to contain two typos: 'OVI 1307 Å' is not a known stellar wind feature (the O VI resonance doublet is at 1031.9/1037.6 Å), and 'C III 117 Å' should presumably be 'C III 1175 Å', the well-known photospheric triplet near that wavelength.
  3. [Table 1] The entry 'Large field of view: 3 arcsecond aperture' conflates aperture with IFU field of view; an IFU's field of view is not an aperture, and the wording should be clarified to avoid confusion with the telescope aperture discussed in the same table.
  4. [References] Several references are incomplete or lack full publication details (Jaskot et al. 2024a,b; Huberty et al. 2024; Menon et al. 2024; Saldana-Lopez et al. 2025), which will make it difficult for readers of a proceedings volume to locate the cited work.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No circularity: this is a requirements and science-case argument with no fitted derivation, and the central instrumentation claim rests on external data and the HWO simulator, not on self-authored inputs.

full rationale

The manuscript presents no equation-level derivation chain whose outputs equal its own inputs. The central claim, that a diffraction-limited UV IFU on HWO is necessary and uniquely achievable, is argued from stated scientific requirements (resolving super star clusters at 1–100 pc and tracing winds to 100 kpc) and from an exposure-time estimate made with the external HWO UV Spectrograph simulator. That estimate is used as a feasibility input, not fitted to a target observable and then renamed as a prediction; the lack of a dedicated IFU exposure-time calculation is a feasibility/correctness concern, not a circular one. The scientific premises about LyC escape, diagnostics, and feedback ages are supported by a mixture of independent groups (Hayes et al. 2023; Bait et al. 2024; Kim et al. 2023; Jaskot et al.) and the authors' own LzLCS-related papers, but those self-citations are not load-bearing in the sense of reducing to an unverified self-referential premise. The reliance on local galaxies as analogs of reionization-era sources is an untested representativeness assumption, not a circular reduction. No fitted parameter is presented as a prediction, no uniqueness theorem from the authors' prior work is invoked to forbid alternatives, and no known result is merely renamed. Therefore no circular step can be exhibited, and the appropriate score is 0.

Assumptions & free parameters 0 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The ledger is small because the paper is not a derivation or empirical study. The central recommendation depends on domain assumptions about local analogs, feedback-driven escape channels, and the fidelity of the HWO simulator, none of which are independently established in this paper. No free parameters or invented entities are introduced.

assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption Local LyC-emitting galaxies at z~0.2-0.4 are representative analogs of EoR galaxies.
    Used throughout the science case (Abstract: 'Local analogs of high-redshift galaxies offer a powerful alternative'; Section 2). If local analogs are not representative, cluster-scale UV observations would not constrain reionization contributions.
  • domain assumption Stellar feedback (radiation pressure, winds, SNe) creates low-density channels that allow LyC photons to escape.
    Assumed as the physical framework in the Introduction and Figure 1; not demonstrated here. The diagnostic program hangs on this premise.
  • domain assumption The HWO UV Spectrograph simulator accurately models on-orbit performance.
    Section 5 uses the hwo.stsci.edu/uvspec_etc simulator to quote exposure times (48/27 min) but provides no validation against actual instrument or calibration data.
  • domain assumption Standard flat LCDM cosmology (H0=70, Omega_m=0.3, Omega_lambda=0.7).
    Section 4 states 'All further claims assume a standard flat cosmology' for angular scale and luminosity distance calculations.
  • domain assumption IGM absorption prevents direct LyC observations at high redshift, so local analogs are necessary.
    Adopted from Inoue et al. 2014; central motivation for the local-analog strategy.

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of How Do Ionizing Photons Escape from Star-Forming Galaxies?." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/PP3BWMWY

@misc{pith2026250623105,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: How Do Ionizing Photons Escape from Star-Forming Galaxies?},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/PP3BWMWY}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2506.23105}
}
read the original abstract

The Epoch of Reionization marks the last major phase transition in the early Universe, during which the majority of neutral hydrogen once filling the intergalactic medium was ionized by the first galaxies. The James Webb Space Telescope is now identifying promising galaxy candidates capable of producing sufficient ionizing photons to drive this transformation. However, the fraction of these photons that escape into intergalactic space--the escape fraction--remains highly uncertain. Stellar feedback is thought to play a critical role in carving low-density channels that allow ionizing radiation to escape, but the dominant mechanisms, their operation, and their connection to observable signatures are not well understood. Local analogs of high-redshift galaxies offer a powerful alternative for studying these processes, since ionizing radiation is unobservable at high redshift due to intergalactic absorption. However, current UV space-based instrumentation lacks the spatial resolution and sensitivity required to fully address this problem. The core challenge lies in the multiscale nature of LyC escape: ionizing photons are generated on scales of 1-100 pc in super star clusters but must traverse the circumgalactic medium which can extend beyond 100 kpc. A UV integral field unit (IFU) spectrograph capable of resolving galaxies across these scales is necessary--and uniquely achievable with the proposed Habitable Worlds Observatory. In this article, we outline the scientific motivation, observables, and observational capabilities needed to make progress on these fundamental questions.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2506.23105 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. — How does feedback shape the neutral gas and dust content of galaxies? Left: In young stellar clusters, radiation pressure and ionizing fronts evacuate low-density channels, which form naturally from turbulence and cloud fragmentation in the ISM (Kakiichi & Gronke 2021). Middle: During the onset of supernovae, mechanical feedback helps clear channels which are further evacuated by intense radiation fronts in a “two… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. — LyC escape according to the [O III] 5007A / [O II] 3726,9 ˚ A ratio and the slope of the FUV continuum slope ( ˚ β). The left panel shows values derived from HST COS integrated spectra for entire galaxies selected from LzLCS. Data were taken from Flury et al. (2022a, 2024). The right panel shows values drawn from individual regions of the Sunburst Arc galaxy, figure taken from Kim et al. (2023). The black points c… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. — ACS/SBC synthetic filter images of two nearby star-forming galaxies (McCandliss 2009). Blue subplots show regions of diffuse Lyα emission. We count roughly 20 (left panel) and 30 (right panel) distinct star clusters in each galaxy. Spatially resolving such features will be critical for understanding how LyC photons escape from galaxies and linking them to observational signatures. 2020; Rosdahl et al. 2022; Choust… view at source ↗

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Forward citations

Cited by 1 Pith paper

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score. Full citation record

  1. CLASSY. XV. Kinematics and Spatial Distributions of Outflows in Local Highly Star-Forming Galaxies

    astro-ph.GA 2026-08 conditional novelty 6.0 of 10

    Outflows in 17 CLASSY galaxies are phase-dependent, with loading factors that fall with stellar mass in line with FIRE-2 and maximum cool-gas velocities near 620 km/s in line with CGOLS.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

61 extracted references · 38 canonical work pages · cited by 1 Pith paper

  1. [1]

    O., Rodr ´ıguez-Henr´ıquez, M., Fern ´andez, V ., et al

    Amor´ın, R. O., Rodr ´ıguez-Henr´ıquez, M., Fern ´andez, V ., et al. 2024, A&A, 682, L25

    work page 2024

  2. [2]

    J., et al

    Atek, H., Labb´e, I., Furtak, L. J., et al. 2024, Nature, 626, 975

    work page 2024

  3. [3]

    2024, A&A, 688, A198

    Bait, O., Borthakur, S., Schaerer, D., et al. 2024, A&A, 688, A198

    2024

  4. [4]

    Bouret, J.-C., Neiner, C., de Castro, A. I. G., et al. 2018, in Space Telescopes and Instrumentation 2018: Ultraviolet to Gamma

    work page 2018

  5. [5]

    N., Rubin, K

    Burchett, J. N., Rubin, K. H. R., Prochaska, J. X., et al. 2021, ApJ, 909, 151

    work page 2021

  6. [6]

    2022, ApJ, 939, 47

    Carr, C., & Scarlata, C. 2022, ApJ, 939, 47

    work page 2022

  7. [7]

    2021, ApJ, 906, 104

    Carr, C., Scarlata, C., Henry, A., et al. 2021, ApJ, 906, 104

    work page 2021

  8. [8]

    2018, ApJ, 860, 143

    Carr, C., Scarlata, C., Panagia, N., et al. 2018, ApJ, 860, 143

    work page 2018

Show all 61 references
  1. [9]

    A., Smith, A., Pandya, V ., et al

    Carr, C. A., Smith, A., Pandya, V ., et al. 2025a, Evaluating Mass Outflow Rate Estimators in FIRE-2 Simulations: Towards a Self-Consistent Framework for Spectral Line Based Predic- tions. arXiv:2503.22312

    arXiv

  2. [10]

    2023, ApJL, 955, L25

    Chen, H.-W., Qu, Z., Rauch, M., et al. 2023, ApJL, 955, L25

    2023

  3. [11]

    2017, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 605, A67

    Chisholm, J., Orlitov´a, I., Schaerer, D., et al. 2017, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 605, A67

    2017

  4. [12]

    2019, The Astrophysical Journal, 882, 182

    Chisholm, J., Rigby, J., Bayliss, M., et al. 2019, The Astrophysical Journal, 882, 182

    2019

  5. [13]

    2016, MN- RAS, 463, 541

    Chisholm, J., Tremonti Christy, A., Leitherer, C., et al. 2016, MN- RAS, 463, 541

    2016

  6. [14]

    2022, MNRAS, 517, 5104

    Chisholm, J., Saldana-Lopez, A., Flury, S., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 517, 5104

    2022

  7. [15]

    2024, MNRAS, 529, 3751

    Choustikov, N., Katz, H., Saxena, A., et al. 2024, MNRAS, 529, 3751

    2024

  8. [16]

    S., Dijkstra, M., Ciardi, B., et al

    Chung, A. S., Dijkstra, M., Ciardi, B., et al. 2019, MNRAS, 484, 2420

    2019

  9. [17]

    K., Li, Z., Steidel, C

    Erb, D. K., Li, Z., Steidel, C. C., et al. 2023, ApJ, 953, 118

    2023

  10. [18]

    R., Moran, E

    Flury, S. R., Moran, E. C., & Eleazer, M. 2023, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 525, 4231

    2023

  11. [19]

    R., Jaskot, A

    Flury, S. R., Jaskot, A. E., Ferguson, H. C., et al. 2022a, ApJS, 260, 1 —. 2022b, ApJ, 930, 126 —. 2024, ApJS, 275, 47

    2024

  12. [20]

    R., Jaskot, A

    Flury, S. R., Jaskot, A. E., Saldana-Lopez, A., et al. 2025, ApJ, 985, 128

    2025

  13. [21]

    C., Froning, C

    Green, J. C., Froning, C. S., Osterman, S., et al. 2012, ApJ, 744, 60

    2012

  14. [22]

    J., Runnholm, A., Scarlata, C., et al

    Hayes, M. J., Runnholm, A., Scarlata, C., et al. 2023, MNRAS, 520, 5903

    2023

  15. [23]

    L., et al

    Henry, A., Scarlata, C., Martin, C. L., et al. 2015, ApJ, 809, 19

    2015

  16. [24]

    Huberty, M., Carr, C., Scarlata, C., et al. 2024

    2024

  17. [25]

    Inoue, A. K. 2010, MNRAS, 401, 1325

    2010

  18. [26]

    K., Shimizu, I., Iwata, I., et al

    Inoue, A. K., Shimizu, I., Iwata, I., et al. 2014, MNRAS, 442, 1805

    2014

  19. [27]

    I., Chisholm, J., Worseck, G., et al

    Izotov, Y . I., Chisholm, J., Worseck, G., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 515, 2864

    2022

  20. [28]

    I., Schaerer, D., Worseck, G., et al

    Izotov, Y . I., Schaerer, D., Worseck, G., et al. 2020, MNRAS, 491, 468

    2020

  21. [29]

    I., Thuan, T

    Izotov, Y . I., Thuan, T. X., & Guseva, N. G. 2017, MNRAS, 471, 548 8 C. Carr, R. Cen, S. Flury et al. Table 1: Observational Capabilities and Requirements Capability or Requirement Necessary Desired Justification Comments UV observations (specify wavelength) Yes Observed fram...

    2017

  22. [30]

    I., Worseck, G., Schaerer, D., et al

    Izotov, Y . I., Worseck, G., Schaerer, D., et al. 2021, MNRAS, 503, 1734 —. 2018, MNRAS, 478, 4851

    2021

  23. [31]

    L., Berg, D

    James, B. L., Berg, D. A., King, T., et al. 2022, ApJS, 262, 37

    2022

  24. [32]

    E., & Oey, M

    Jaskot, A. E., & Oey, M. S. 2013, ApJ, 766, 91

    2013

  25. [33]

    2021, ApJ, 908, 30

    Kakiichi, K., & Gronke, M. 2021, ApJ, 908, 30

    2021

  26. [34]

    J., Bayliss, M

    Kim, K. J., Bayliss, M. B., Rigby, J. R., et al. 2023, ApJL, 955, L17

    2023

  27. [35]

    2014, ApJ, 788, 121

    Kimm, T., & Cen, R. 2014, ApJ, 788, 121

    2014

  28. [36]

    Li, M., & Bryan, G. L. 2020, ApJL, 890, L30

    2020

  29. [37]

    2024, MNRAS, 527, 4173

    Lin, Y .-H., Scarlata, C., Williams, H., et al. 2024, MNRAS, 527, 4173

    2024

  30. [38]

    2022, MNRAS, 517, 2972

    Marques-Chaves, R., Schaerer, D., ´Alvarez-M´arquez, J., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 517, 2972

    2022

  31. [39]

    L., Peng, Z., & Li, Y

    Martin, C. L., Peng, Z., & Li, Y . 2024, ApJ, 966, 190

    2024

  32. [40]

    A., & Gronke, M

    Mason, C. A., & Gronke, M. 2020, MNRAS, 499, 1395

    2020

  33. [41]

    McCandliss, S. R. 2009, in American Institute of Physics Confer- ence Series, V ol. 1135, Future Directions in Ultraviolet Spec- How Do Ionizing Photons Escape from SF Galaxies? 9 troscopy: A Conference Inspired by the Accomplishments of the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explo...

    2009

  34. [42]

    R., & O’Meara, J

    McCandliss, S. R., & O’Meara, J. M. 2017, ApJ, 845, 111

    2017

  35. [43]

    H., Burkhart, B., Somerville, R

    Menon, S. H., Burkhart, B., Somerville, R. S., et al. 2024 Mu˜noz, J. B., Mirocha, J., Chisholm, J., et al. 2024, MNRAS, 535, L37

    2024

  36. [44]

    2014, MNRAS, 442, 900 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

    Nakajima, K., & Ouchi, M. 2014, MNRAS, 442, 900 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023, Pathways to Discovery in Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 2020s (Washington, DC: The National Academies Press)

    2014

  37. [45]

    W., Shapley, A., et al

    Pahl, A., Topping, M. W., Shapley, A., et al. 2025, ApJ, 981, 134

    2025

  38. [46]

    X., Kasen, D., & Rubin, K

    Prochaska, J. X., Kasen, D., & Rubin, K. 2011, The Astrophysical Journal, 734, 24

    2011

  39. [47]

    Robertson, B. E. 2022, ARA&A, 60, 121

    2022

  40. [48]

    2022, MNRAS, 515, 2386

    Rosdahl, J., Blaizot, J., Katz, H., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 515, 2386

    2022

  41. [49]

    2022, A&A, 663, A59

    Saldana-Lopez, A., Schaerer, D., Chisholm, J., et al. 2022, A&A, 663, A59

    2022

  42. [50]

    J., Le Reste, A., et al

    Saldana-Lopez, A., Hayes, M. J., Le Reste, A., et al. 2025

    2025

  43. [51]

    J., Jones, G

    Saxena, A., Bunker, A. J., Jones, G. C., et al. 2024, A&A, 684, A84

    2024

  44. [52]

    2015, ApJ, 801, 43

    Scarlata, C., & Panagia, N. 2015, ApJ, 801, 43

    2015

  45. [53]

    2024, MNRAS, 527, 6139

    Simmonds, C., Tacchella, S., Hainline, K., et al. 2024, MNRAS, 527, 6139

    2024

  46. [54]

    C., Strom, A

    Steidel, C. C., Strom, A. L., Pettini, M., et al. 2016, The Astro- physical Journal, 826, 159

    2016

  47. [55]

    2015, A&A, 578, A7

    Verhamme, A., Orlitov´a, I., Schaerer, D., et al. 2015, A&A, 578, A7

    2015

  48. [56]

    M., Leitherer, C., et al

    Wang, B., Heckman, T. M., Leitherer, C., et al. 2019, ApJ, 885, 57

    2019

  49. [57]

    2022, ApJ, 933, 222

    Xu, X., Heckman, T., Henry, A., et al. 2022, ApJ, 933, 222

    2022

  50. [58]

    R., & Martin, C

    Yuan, Y ., Krumholz, M. R., & Martin, C. L. 2023, Monthly No- tices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 518, 4084

    2023

  51. [59]

    K., & Jensen, H

    Zackrisson, E., Inoue, A. K., & Jensen, H. 2013, ApJ, 777, 39

    2013

  52. [60]

    2017, ApJ, 836, 78

    Zackrisson, E., Binggeli, C., Finlator, K., et al. 2017, ApJ, 836, 78

    2017

  53. [61]

    B., Comparat, J., Kneib, J.-P., et al

    Zhu, G. B., Comparat, J., Kneib, J.-P., et al. 2015, The Astrophys- ical Journal, 815, 48

    2015

Pith tools

Reviewed August 6, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.