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An Aligned Sub-Neptune Revealed with MAROON-X and a Tendency Towards Alignment for Small Planets

T0 review · 2 major / 9 minor · reviewed 2026-08-06 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read This paper establishes that sub-Neptune TOI-1759A b is spin-orbit aligned, with a projected obliquity of $|\lambda|=4^\circ\pm18^\circ$, and that small planets generally tend toward alignment.

desk verdict New aligned sub-Neptune measurement is careful and valuable, but the alignment claim is prior-dependent and the population trends are confirmatory. read the letter →

arxiv 2507.04291 v1 pith:3UM4VRQT submitted 2025-07-06 astro-ph.EP

Alex S. Polanski , Ian J.M. Crossfield , Andreas Seifahrt , Jacob L. Bean , Jonathan Brande , Karen A. Collins , David R. Coria , Akihiko Fukui
show 4 more authors
Norio Narita Julian Stürmer Steven Giacalone David Kasper
This is my paper
classification astro-ph.EP
keywords Rossiter-McLaughlineffectspin-orbitalignmentsub-NeptuneexoplanetobliquityTOI-1759AbplanetaryformationradialvelocityTESS
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper measures the spin-orbit alignment of the sub-Neptune TOI-1759A b and finds that the planet's orbit lies nearly in the plane of its host star's rotation, with a projected obliquity of $|\lambda|=4^\circ\pm18^\circ$ and a true obliquity of $\psi=24^\circ\pm12^\circ$. At an 18.85-day period and $a/R_\ast\approx40$, it is the longest-period single sub-Neptune with a measured obliquity. The authors use this result together with the emerging sample of 36 small planets to argue that planets smaller than about 8 Earth radii tend toward alignment, and that the misaligned ones are mostly larger sub-Neptunes and sub-Saturns living in isolation. If correct, this points to a dynamically cool formation history in which small planets formed in aligned disks and migrated inward smoothly rather than being scattered into tilted orbits.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing mechanism is the Rossiter-McLaughlin effect: as a transiting planet blocks part of the rotating stellar disk, the star's apparent radial velocity shifts in a way that depends on the projected obliquity $\lambda$. The authors model that anomaly with the analytic RM prescription of Hirano et al. (2010), and avoid the usual degeneracy between $\lambda$ and $v\sin i$ by sampling the star's radius and rotation period to obtain the equatorial velocity, then drawing $v\sin i$ from the stellar inclination, following Stefánsson et al. (2022). The same joint fit includes TESS and MuSCAT3 light curves, and a 100,000-realization noise simulation sets a false-alarm probability below about 1% for the RM detection.

What would settle it

Obtain an independent measurement of TOI-1759A's rotation period, for example from long-baseline photometric spot modulation or a longer sequence of spectropolarimetric Stokes V observations; if the ~18-day signal is confirmed as the rotation period, the joint RM fit would need to be redone with $v_\mathrm{eq}\approx1.7$ km/s, and the claimed alignment could fail to survive.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

On the paper's own terms, the central discovery is that TOI-1759A b has a spin-orbit angle consistent with alignment: a sky-projected obliquity of $|\lambda|=4^\circ\pm18^\circ$ and a true obliquity of $\psi=24^\circ\pm12^\circ$, which rules out a polar orbit at $4.7\sigma$ confidence. The measurement comes from MAROON-X radial velocities taken during a transit, modeled jointly with TESS and MuSCAT3 photometry under a stellar rotation prior. Placing this planet in the growing sample of planets with $R<8\,R_\oplus$, the paper finds that small planets tend toward alignment, that aligned planets are more often in compact multi-planet systems, and that misaligned planets are more often isolated, a difference it quantifies at roughly $3\sigma$. It also finds that most misaligned small planets have radii between 4 and 8 Earth radii, while sub-Neptunes and super-Earths are preferentially aligned; TOI-1759A b joins K2-25 b as one of only two well-aligned single sub-Neptunes known.

Load-bearing premise

The result rests on the assumption that the host star's rotation period is about 35 days; if the competing ~18-day periodogram peak were the true rotation period, the equatorial velocity would nearly double to about 1.7 km/s, changing the amplitude scale against which the obliquity is measured.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • TOI-1759A b becomes the longest-period single sub-Neptune with a measured obliquity, joining K2-25 b as one of only two well-aligned single sub-Neptunes known to date.
  • If small planets generally form aligned, then most sub-Neptunes and super-Earths, especially in compact multi-planet systems, should continue to show low obliquities as more are measured.
  • The population result implies that large obliquities among sub-Jovian planets are preferentially found in isolated systems with radii between 4 and 8 Earth radii, and that hidden giant companions are not yet required by the radial-velocity data.
  • The lack of detected giant companions in most single-planet systems weakens the case that such companions universally drive the polar orbits seen in that population.
  • Future intra-system obliquity measurements, with more than one planet per system, will directly test whether compact systems share a common aligned plane.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • A direct test of the paper's picture would be to measure obliquities for a dozen single sub-Neptunes with $a/R_\ast>30$; the cool-disk-migration scenario predicts they should be aligned, whereas scattering scenarios predict a broad distribution.
  • The injection-recovery limits reach only about 2-3 AU for a few systems, so wide-orbit giant or stellar companions beyond that radius could still explain the polar sub-Saturns; long-baseline radial-velocity monitoring of systems like GJ 3470 would settle that.
  • Because the RM amplitude is only about 1.5 m/s against roughly 1 m/s residuals, the alignment claim is best treated as provisional until a second transit is observed with similar precision; the false-alarm test addresses white noise but not correlated stellar activity.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

2 major / 9 minor

Summary. This paper measures the spin-orbit obliquity of the sub-Neptune TOI-1759A b from a single MAROON-X transit observation, jointly modeled with MuSCAT3 and TESS photometry. The fit yields a sky-projected obliquity |λ| = 4° ± 18° and a true obliquity ψ = 24° ± 12°, indicating an aligned system; the paper quotes a 4.7σ exclusion of polar orbits. At P = 18.85 d and a/R* = 40, this would make TOI-1759A b the longest-period single sub-Neptune with a measured obliquity. The paper also compiles the current sample of obliquity measurements for planets with R < 8 R⊕ (36 planets), reporting a 2/3 aligned versus 1/3 misaligned split, a tendency for misaligned planets to be isolated rather than in compact systems (3.1σ, consistent with Radzom et al. 2024), and preferential alignment at larger a/R*. Injection and recovery tests on archival radial velocities quantify the sensitivity to giant companions for the single-planet systems.

Significance. If the alignment measurement is robust, TOI-1759A b is a valuable anchor for small-planet formation scenarios: a single sub-Neptune on a relatively wide orbit, aligned with its host star, with no detected companion and no significant eccentricity, favoring disk-driven migration over scattering or secular excitation. The population compilation, while small, is a useful and carefully hedged synthesis that reproduces and extends recent results on the alignment of compact systems, the isolation of misaligned planets, and the a/R* dependence. Strengths of the paper include fully machine-readable data tables (Table E2 and Table C1), a 100,000-simulation false-alarm analysis, explicit documentation of the low-impact-parameter v sin i–λ degeneracy in Appendix A, and candid statements of the remaining limitations (rotation-period ambiguity, uncorrelated-noise assumption). The two headline quantitative claims — the 4.7σ polar exclusion and, to a lesser extent, the 3.1σ isolation trend — are conditional on modeling choices that the current text does not fully test.

major comments (2)
  1. [§4.2, Table 1, Appendix A] The central claims — |λ| = 4° ± 18° and the 4.7σ exclusion of polar orbits — are anchored by the rotation-period prior Prot ~ N(35, 5) d, which caps v sin i at the equatorial velocity veq ≈ 1.0 km/s. The paper's stated reason for rejecting the ~18-day periodogram peak, that rotation signals appear at Prot or harmonics, is heuristic, and the origin of the ~18-day feature is never established (it could be the planet's own orbital signal at P = 18.85 d, an activity harmonic, or the true rotation period). Because the RM signal at b = 0.125 constrains essentially only the product sqrt(1 − b²) v sin i cos λ (Appendix A), a true rotation period of ~18 d (veq ≈ 1.7 km/s) would allow the same ~1.5 m/s amplitude with v sin i ≈ 1.7 km/s and cos λ ≈ 0.56 (λ ≈ 56°), and the derived ψ would change as well. The paper should test the robustness of the alignment claim by re-running the RM fit with the Prot prior centered at ~18 d and with a much wider prior (e.g., N(35, 15) d), reporting the resulting λ, v sin i, and ψ posteriors and the polar-exclusion significance in each case. The text should also identify the 18-day periodogram feature explicitly, for example by comparing its frequency with the 18.85 d orbital frequency.
  2. [§4.3, §4.3.1] The false-alarm analysis in §4.3 simulates 100,000 datasets with uncorrelated Gaussian noise (plus a fixed red-blue covariance), and the paper explicitly acknowledges that correlated noise is ignored. Since the measured RM amplitude (1.5 m/s) is only about 1.5 times the residual RMS (~1 m/s), the <1% false-alarm probability should be re-derived under a correlated-noise model — for example, a Gaussian process with a periodicity near the stellar rotation period, or a red-noise jitter term — before the RM detection can be considered secure. The activity-indicator correlations in §4.3.1 provide partial reassurance, but the Na D correlations are flagged by the authors as depending on a single discrepant observation, so they do not by themselves rule out activity contamination of the in-transit RVs. A quantitative false-alarm estimate that includes correlated noise would make the detection claim robust.
minor comments (9)
  1. [Table 1] The β prior is listed as N(3500, 500) under a km/s column header, but the values are given in m/s; the entry should be N(3.5, 0.5).
  2. [Table 1] The ψ posterior is written as 24+12/+11; the two error bars should be given as 24+12/−11, or simply 24 ± 12 as in the abstract.
  3. [§4.3] 'Maximum a priori estimate' should read 'maximum a posteriori estimate.'
  4. [§4.1] Typo: 'macrotuburlence' should be 'macroturbulence.'
  5. [Table 1] The σGP prior descriptions 'Γ−1(eσFlux,std(Flux))' are garbled; the inverse-gamma parameterization should be written out explicitly.
  6. [§4.2] The '4.7σ polar exclusion' is quoted as if the λ posterior were Gaussian, but the posterior is asymmetric (λ = −4+19/−18); please report the posterior probability mass at |λ| above a defined polar threshold (e.g., 80°) and state the threshold used.
  7. [§5.2, Figure 7d] The text says that all compact systems are aligned with the exception of HD 3167 c and AU Mic c, while Figure 7d marks a single compact, misaligned planet; please clarify which systems satisfy the strict misalignment definition in footnote 1.
  8. [§3.1, §5.4] The fixed eccentricity of zero is not justified in the text; please cite the literature constraints on e for TOI-1759A b or marginalize over e with an informative prior.
  9. [§5] A brief discussion of selection effects in the R < 8 R⊕ obliquity sample (e.g., RM detectability as a function of v sin i, transit depth, and host-star brightness) would strengthen the population-level interpretation.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 1.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the alignment claim rests on an external rotation-period prior, not on a fitted parameter renamed as a prediction; the paper openly documents the v sin i-λ degeneracy.

full rationale

The central derivation is not circular. The Rossiter-McLaughlin model uses the physically motivated parameterization v sin i = veq sqrt(1-cos^2 i*) with veq = 2πR*/Prot, following Stefansson et al. (2022). The rotation period and stellar radius are external inputs from Martioli et al. (2022) and Polanski et al. (2024), not quantities fitted to the MAROON-X in-transit data. The RM amplitude constrains a product involving v sin i and cos λ, and the Appendix A corner plot explicitly shows that without the rotational prior the posterior has a long high-v sin i tail that widens λ. The paper's 4.7σ polar-orbit exclusion is therefore conditional on the adopted ~35-day rotation period, but this is a transparent modeling assumption rather than a circular reduction: no equation is defined in terms of the target result, and no fitted parameter is later relabeled as a prediction. The population-level alignment trend is assembled from TEPCAT and NASA Exoplanet Archive data with a resampling test, independent of any fitted parameters from this paper's RM analysis. The self-citation to Polanski et al. (2024) supports the rotation period detection, but the primary detection is from Martioli et al. (2022) via SPIRou Stokes V, so the self-citation is corroborating and not load-bearing. The only substantive caveat, that an alternative 18-day rotation period would change the v sin i prior and reopen the obliquity degeneracy, is a robustness concern rather than a circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 2 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central measurement depends on a handful of external priors and model assumptions, none of which are invented for this paper. The main concern is the rotation period ambiguity and the sample selection in the population analysis.

free parameters (2)
  • Stellar rotation period prior central value = 35 days
    Used to compute equatorial velocity veq and hence the v sin i prior. If the 18-day periodogram peak were real, v sin i would be about 1.7 km/s, altering RM modeling. The paper sets the prior to N(35,5) days in Section 4.2.
  • Line broadening parameter beta = 3.5 km/s
    Set with a Gaussian prior N(3.5,0.5) km/s to account for macroturbulence and instrumental broadening. The RM model uses it to compute the line profile. It is not independently measured for this star.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption The RM model of Hirano et al. (2010) accurately describes the RV anomaly for this star and planet.
    Used in Section 4.1 to model the RM effect; the model assumes a known limb darkening and rotation profile.
  • domain assumption The orbit is circular (eccentricity = 0).
    Section 3.1 states 'In all of our analyses, eccentricity is held at 0.' This is based on previous studies but is an assumption for the RM and transit modeling.
  • domain assumption The red and blue MAROON-X arms can be modeled with a common RM model and zero point.
    Section 4.1 says they adopt a common RM model for both datasets due to low-amplitude signal and insufficient ingress/egress sampling to constrain separate limb darkening.
  • domain assumption The noise model for the false-alarm simulation (Gaussian with covariance between red and blue arms) adequately represents the data noise.
    Section 4.3 assumes this but notes 'we have ignored the possibility of correlated noise which could increase the false-alarm probability.'
  • domain assumption The TEPCAT-based sample of 36 planets is representative enough to infer population-level obliquity trends.
    Section 5 compiles all published measurements, but the sample is small and heterogeneous; selection biases are acknowledged but not corrected.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of An Aligned Sub-Neptune Revealed with MAROON-X and a Tendency Towards Alignment for Small Planets." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/3UM4VRQT

@misc{pith2026250704291,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: An Aligned Sub-Neptune Revealed with MAROON-X and a Tendency Towards Alignment for Small Planets},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/3UM4VRQT}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2507.04291}
}
abstract

We present the Rossiter-McLaughlin measurement of the sub-Neptune TOI-1759A b with MAROON-X. A joint analysis with MuSCAT3 photometry and nine additional TESS transits produces a sky-projected obliquity of $|\lambda|$= $4^\circ\pm18^{\circ}$. We also derive a true obliquity of $\psi$=24$\pm12^{\circ}$ making this planet consistent with full alignment albeit to $<1\sigma$. With a period of 18.85 days and an $a/R_{*}$ of 40, TOI-1759A b is the longest period single sub-Neptune to have a measured obliquity. It joins a growing number of smaller planets which have had this measurement made and, along with K2-25 b, is the only single, aligned sub-Neptune known to date. We also provide an overview of the emerging distribution of obliquity measurements for planets with R$<8$ R$_{\oplus}$. We find that these types of planets tend toward alignment, especially the sub-Neptunes and super-Earths implying a dynamically cool formation history. The majority of misaligned planets in this category have 4$<$R$\leq$8 R$_{\oplus}$ and are more likely to be isolated than planets rather than in compact systems. We find this result to be significant at the $3\sigma$ level, consistent with previous studies. In addition, we conduct injection and recovery testing on available archival radial velocity data to put limits on the presence of massive companions in these systems. Current archival data is insufficient for most systems to have detected a giant planet.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2507.04291 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p002_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Normalized transit lightcurves from MuSCAT3 in the g, r, i, and z passbands. The top row shows both the lightcurve model (black, dashed lines) and the Gaussian Process used to account for the systematics (orange line). length solutions and instrumental drift corrections were based on the simultaneous calibration data of a stabi￾lized Fabry–P´erot etalon (St¨urmer et al. 2017), which allows order-by-order drift corre… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Transit timing variations for TOI-1759A b from 12 TESS transits. The shaded blue area represents the 1σ spread (2.8 minutes) which is comparable to the cadence of the TESS photometry (2 minutes). rameters constant whereas we impose a Gaussian prior of width 0.2 for the TESS limb darkening parameters. Additional priors on other parameters are given in Ta￾ble 1. In all of our analyses, eccentricity is held at 0. The M… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (5 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Radial velocity timeseries from MAROON-X with the median Rossiter-McLaughlin and 1σ confidence shown as the black line and blue shaded region. Black points are the binned radial velocities. The inset shows the geometry of the system with the black arrow indicating the …
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: v sin (i)-λ space for the maximum likelihood val￾ues of an RM model fit to 100,000 simulated datasets absent of an RM effect. A Gaussian kernel density estimate is over￾laid in blue to emphasize density of points. The posterior distribution for the real MAROON-X datase…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Left: Projected obliquity |λ| as a function of host star effective temperature for planets with R ≤ 8 R⊕ from a query of the TEPCAT catalog (Southworth 2011). Triangles indicate planets with 4< R ≤8 R⊕ while circles indicate planets with R ≤ 4 R⊕. Open points indicate …
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: a) The same data as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_7.png]
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Abacus plot for all systems containing an RP < 8 R⊕ planet with a measured obliquity. Stars are colored and sized according to the temperature and radius. Blue arrows indicate the obliquity of the inner-most planet with λ measured. Red arrows are for the 2nd inner-most…

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