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REVIEW 3 major objections 5 minor 63 references

Need for PRIMA to understand the nature and ISM physical conditions of HST-dark galaxies

T0 review · 3 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-05 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read This paper argues that PRIMA's 25-265 μm imaging and spectroscopy can reveal whether HST-dark galaxies are powered by stars or buried black holes and measure the physical state of their gas.

desk verdict A useful PRIMA science case for HST-dark galaxies, but check the FIRESS line list: [O III] 88 μm at z=2.2 falls outside the instrument's 24–235 μm band. read the letter →

arxiv 2509.01988 v1 pith:BMMMJJO3 submitted 2025-09-02 astro-ph.GA astro-ph.IM

Carlotta Gruppioni , Lee Armus , Matthieu Bethermin , Laura Bisigello , Denis Burgarella , Francesco Calura , Ivan Delvecchio , Andrea Enia
show 5 more authors
Andreas Faisst Francesca Pozzi Giulia Rodighiero Alberto Traina Livia Vallini
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GAastro-ph.IM
keywords HST-darkgalaxiesdustystar-formingfar-infraredastronomymid-infraredspectroscopyfine-structurelinesAGNdiagnosticsinterstellarmediumgalaxyevolution
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

Massive, dusty galaxies invisible in the deepest HST images—HST-dark galaxies—are turning up in ALMA surveys at redshifts 2.5 to 7 and may account for a large share of early star formation, but their spectral energy distributions between JWST and ALMA wavelengths remain essentially unmeasured. This paper argues that PRIMA is the facility that can close that gap: roughly 50 hours of PRIMAger imaging would detect 50-100 ALMA-selected HST-dark galaxies and shrink the uncertainty on their total infrared luminosities from about 0.5 dex to 0.1-0.15 dex. Another ~100 hours of FIRESS spectroscopy would detect key fine-structure lines in the 20-25 brightest systems at z=2-2.5, letting observers determine whether an AGN or star formation powers each galaxy and measure gas density, ionization, and temperature. If these observations deliver, HST-dark galaxies can finally be placed in the evolutionary sequence, testing whether they are the missing progenitors of today's massive ellipticals and why current simulations underpredict their numbers.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing mechanism is wavelength coverage. PRIMAger's 12 photometric bands from 25 to 265 μm (PHI1, PHI2, and four polarimetric PPI bands) land exactly in the rest-frame mid/far-infrared region where HST-dark SEDs are currently unconstrained, where PAH features and hot AGN-heated dust emit and where the dust peak itself sits. FIRESS's low-resolution R=100 mode covers 24-235 μm simultaneously, catching the mid/far-infrared fine-structure lines—especially [Ne V] and [O IV] as AGN ionization diagnostics and [O III] 52/88 as a density diagnostic—whose ratios are dust-insensitive probes of the gas ionized by stars or an AGN. The feasibility calculation takes the ALMA-selected HST-dark sam

What would settle it

After PRIMA is in operation, a ~50 h PRIMAger campaign on roughly 100 ALMA-selected HST-dark galaxies would test the claim directly: if fewer than about 50 sources are detected at 5σ, or if the recovered L_IR scatter stays near 0.5 dex instead of shrinking to 0.1-0.15 dex, the predicted feasibility and precision gain fail.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

The paper's central claim is that the PRIMA observatory can observationally open the otherwise inaccessible mid- and far-infrared window on HST-dark galaxies. With about 50 hours of pointed PRIMAger observations, 50-100 ALMA-selected HST-dark galaxies would be detected at 5σ across the full 25-265 μm range—roughly 1 hour per source for the bulk of the population at 3≲z<4 and L_IR≳10^12.5 L_sun, 10 hours for fainter higher-redshift sources, and less than 0.1 hours for the brightest low-redshift tail. Adding the PRIMAger bands to current IRAC+ALMA SEDs improves L_IR precision from a scatter of about 0.5 dex to 0.1-0.15 dex. Spectroscopically, about 100 hours with FIRESS in low-resolution mode

Load-bearing premise

The exposure-time and detectability estimates rest on the assumed median SED of HST-dark galaxies and on local L_line-L_IR scaling relations; if these galaxies are colder, fainter, or have weaker line-to-IR ratios at z≈2-3, the required observing times would be substantially longer.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • A ~50 h PRIMAger program would replace single-point ALMA photometry with 12-band SEDs, giving the first constraints on dust temperature, dust mass, and photometric redshifts for HST-dark galaxies.
  • L_IR precision would improve from about 0.5 dex to 0.1-0.15 dex, turning current order-of-magnitude SFRs and gas depletion times into quantitative evolutionary constraints.
  • A ~100 h FIRESS program would detect mid/far-infrared fine-structure lines in 20-25 z=2-2.5 HST-dark galaxies, separating AGN- from star-formation-powered systems and measuring gas density, ionization, and chemical conditions.
  • If the AGN fraction exceeds 40%, [Ne V] and [O IV] become detectable in 0.4-2 h per source, providing direct black-hole accretion measurements for heavily obscured AGN that X-ray facilities would likely miss.
  • Constraining the abundance and physical properties of HST-dark galaxies would test galaxy formation simulations that currently underpredict the number density of massive dusty galaxies at z>2 by one to two orders of magnitude.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same PRIMAger/FIRESS strategy could be applied to JWST-selected extremely red galaxies, extending the census of heavily obscured massive galaxies beyond the ALMA-selected population.
  • Combining PRIMAger 25-265 μm photometry with JWST rest-frame optical data may break the dust-temperature/redshift degeneracy, likely revising current photometric redshifts and stellar mass estimates for individual sources.
  • If [Ne V] is detected in a substantial fraction of the sample, it would imply a large population of Compton-thick AGN in the early universe, with consequences for black-hole seeding and for the AGN contribution to cosmic reionization.
  • FIRESS line ratios such as [O III] 52/88 could supply the first electron-density measurements in HST-dark galaxies, linking their short depletion times to the turbulent or clumpy state of their gas reservoirs.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper argues that PRIMA/PRIMAger imaging (25–265 μm) and FIRESS spectroscopy (24–235 μm) are necessary to characterize HST-dark galaxies: ALMA-selected, optically invisible, massive dusty sources at z≳2 whose SEDs are currently constrained only by a few IRAC/ALMA photometric points. The authors present a science case based on the literature sample of roughly 90 ALMA-detected HST-dark galaxies, discuss their location relative to the main sequence and gas-depletion times, and provide quantitative forecasts: about 50 hours of PRIMAger pointed observations would detect 50–100 such galaxies at 5σ, improving L_IR uncertainties from ~0.5 dex to ~0.1–0.15 dex; about 100 hours of FIRESS low-resolution spectroscopy would detect fine-structure lines in 20–25 of the brightest, lower-redshift (z≈2–2.5) sources, enabling AGN/starburst diagnostics and ISM studies. The paper is explicitly an observing-strategy and feasibility study for PRIMA.

Significance. If the quantitative forecasts are reliable, the paper makes a strong and timely case for PRIMA's unique role in filling the wavelength gap between JWST and ALMA for the HST-dark population. The qualitative scientific argument is convincing: those galaxies are dusty, likely massive, and poorly constrained, and mid-/far-IR photometry plus line spectroscopy is the obvious route to their physical properties. The paper also usefully quantifies the expected gain in L_IR precision using published simulation work and identifies concrete AGN/SF line diagnostics. Its main weaknesses are that the most quantitative claims rest on an unpublished median SED, local scaling relations applied at high redshift without validation, and at least one internally inconsistent line detectability statement. These issues do not invalidate the qualitative science case but make the headline exposure-time estimates unreliable as stated.

major comments (3)
  1. [§4.2, FIRESS line list] The text states that for L_IR=10^12.8 Lsun at z=2.2, FIRESS with ~2 h/source will detect [Ne II] 12.8, [Si II] 34.5, [O I] 63, [O III] 88, and [O IV] 25.9. FIRESS covers 24–235 μm (Sec. 2). At z=2.2, [O III] 88 μm is observed at 88×(1+2.2)=281.6 μm, outside the FIRESS band. This is not a modeling uncertainty but an internal inconsistency directly affecting the claimed ~100 h / 20–25 galaxy spectroscopic capability. The estimate should be re-derived with an in-band line set, or the redshift/luminosity assumptions should be changed accordingly.
  2. [§4.2, L_line–L_IR scaling relations] The ~2 h/source FIRESS estimates are based on local (z≈0) L_line–L_IR relations from Ref. 61 applied to z≈2.2 galaxies. No validation of these relations at high redshift is provided, and the paper itself notes that adopting the Ref. 62 [Ne II] calibration changes the required exposure from ~2 h to ~10 min. A factor-of-12 sensitivity to the adopted scaling relation means that the central 'about 100 h for 20–25 galaxies' estimate is not robust. Please bracket the predictions with different calibrations and state which lines/quoted times would survive the full plausible range.
  3. [§4.1 and Figs. 2, 4, 5] The PRIMAger exposure-time estimates (10 h for faint/high-z, 1 h for the bulk, <0.1 h for bright sources) are obtained by rescaling factsheet sensitivities to a 'median SED' compiled in 'Gruppioni et al. in preparation.' Likewise, Fig. 2's density contours and Fig. 4's luminosity distribution are attributed to the same unpublished paper. The central quantitative claims of the manuscript are therefore not reproducible from the submitted text or publicly available data. Please include the median SED, the sample definitions, and the resulting SEDs/templates in an appendix or public repository, or provide an alternative public reference.
minor comments (5)
  1. [§1/§2, wavelength ranges] The PRIMA wavelength coverage is quoted variously as '25 to 265 μm', '24 to 265 μm', '25 to 250 μm', and the instrument section describes PHI1 as 24–45 μm, PHI2 as 45–84 μm, and PPI bands as 96–235 μm. Please harmonize these ranges and clarify whether there is a real gap between 84 and 96 μm and between 235 and 265 μm.
  2. [§4.1] Typo: 'PRIMger' should be 'PRIMAger'.
  3. [§4.2] The sentence 'by considering for the latter the relation provided for a low AGN fraction, f_AGN < 40% the 5 to 40 μm range, valid also for no or negligible AGN' is grammatically unclear. Define f_AGN more precisely and state the wavelength range over which it is measured.
  4. [Eq. (1)] Equation (1) appears in raw 'EQ-TARGET' format in the text; ensure it is rendered properly. Also define the units of ϵ explicitly when the numerical value 0.1 is introduced.
  5. [Fig. 6] The legend of Fig. 6 is dense and the dashed/dotted line styles are hard to distinguish in grayscale. Consider labeling the curves directly or using a tabular summary of the L_IR precision values.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: exposure-time forecasts are forward calculations from observed SEDs and external PRIMA sensitivities; self-citations are not load-bearing.

full rationale

The paper's claimed derivation chain consists of forward predictions, not reductions to inputs. PRIMAger detection times are computed by rescaling PRIMAger factsheet sensitivities (external instrument specification) to a median HST-dark galaxy SED compiled from literature samples (Section 4.1). This is a standard exposure-time estimate, not a fit to the predicted quantity. FIRESS line detection times use published local L_line-L_IR relations (Ref. 61) and the PRIMA ETC; these are assumptions with stated sensitivity (e.g., the paper notes the [Ne II] time changes from ~2 h to ~10 min if an alternative relation is used), but they are not fitted parameters relabeled as predictions. The L_IR precision improvement is taken from an external simulation (Ref. 59) that uses the PRIMAger filter set; it is not defined in terms of the HST-dark sample or the detection-time predictions. No equation in the paper reduces to an input, and no result is forced by a self-citation chain. Self-citations (Refs. 20, 59, 61, and the in-preparation SED compilation) are used as methodological inputs, but the central claim—that PRIMA is needed to fill the wavelength gap between JWST and ALMA for HST-dark galaxies—rests on the empirical existence and properties of these galaxies, not on those citations. The possible internal inconsistency regarding [O III] 88 μm falling outside the FIRESS band at z=2.2 is a correctness concern, not a circularity, and is therefore not reflected in the circularity score.

Assumptions & free parameters 4 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The paper's feasibility argument depends mainly on adopted SED templates, local scaling relations, and instrument sensitivity assumptions. No new physical entities are introduced. The most significant inputs are the unpublished 'Gruppioni et al. in preparation' compilation and the same-authors' simulations (Ref 59) and scaling relations (Ref 61).

free parameters (4)
  • Luminosity bin thresholds for exposure estimates = log L_IR ~ 12, 12.5, 12.8 L_sun
    Adopted by hand in Section 4.1 to separate faint/high-z, bulk, and bright/lower-z subsamples; not derived from data.
  • AGN fraction threshold f_AGN = 40%
    Assumed in Section 4.2 for [O IV] and [Ne V] detectability; based on a range from the literature (Ref 17) but treated as a free threshold.
  • Assumed L_line-L_IR scaling relations = Relations from Ref 61
    Used in Section 4.2 to predict line fluxes and limiting SFR/BHAR; adopted from the first author's earlier work without independent high-z validation.
  • Accretion efficiency epsilon = 0.1
    Standard assumption in Eq. 1 for converting L_AGN to BHAR; chosen by convention.
assumptions (6)
  • domain assumption Lambda-CDM cosmology with H0=70, Omega_L=0.7, Omega_M=0.3
    Stated in Section 1 as the assumed cosmology for distances and luminosities.
  • standard math Chabrier initial mass function
    Adopted in Section 1 for stellar masses and SFRs, a standard choice in the field.
  • domain assumption HST-dark galaxies are massive, dusty, high-redshift star-forming systems
    The entire science case rests on this characterization; while supported by ALMA detections, the exact nature is the open question under investigation.
  • domain assumption Dust continuum in the Rayleigh-Jeans tail is optically thin and traces molecular gas
    Used in Section 3.1 to infer molecular gas masses from ALMA continuum, following Scoville et al. (Ref 45).
  • ad hoc to paper Local IR line-luminosity relations apply at z~2 to 3
    Adopted in Section 4.2 to compute FIRESS line detectability and limiting SFR/BHAR; not independently verified at these redshifts.
  • domain assumption PRIMA factsheet and ETC sensitivities are accurate
    All exposure time estimates are rescaled from the PRIMAger factsheet and FIRESS ETC, which are instrument assumptions.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Need for PRIMA to understand the nature and ISM physical conditions of HST-dark galaxies." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/BMMMJJO3

@misc{pith2026250901988,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Need for PRIMA to understand the nature and ISM physical conditions of HST-dark galaxies},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/BMMMJJO3}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2509.01988}
}
read the original abstract

One of the main open issues in galaxy formation and evolution is the early assembly of the most massive galaxies and their contribution to the stellar mass and star formation rate densities at early epochs. Massive red sources already in place at z > 2 to 3 have been found in deep Spitzer-IRAC and ALMA surveys. They are often called optically and near-IR dark, or HST-dark, being undetected even in the deepest HST frames. The submillimeter (i.e., ALMA) detection of these sources confirms their high-z dusty nature: they are massive (e.g., log(M*/Msun) > 10) and dusty star-forming galaxies with estimated redshifts in the 2.5 to 7 range. They seem to lie mostly below the main sequence (MS) of star-forming galaxies and show gas depletion times <1 Gyr. Imaging with the PRIMA/PRIMAger instrument over the full 25 to 265 micron range will allow us to characterize their still uncovered spectral energy distributions between JWST and ALMA spectral windows, probing their dust content and properties (e.g., temperature, mass), whereas spectroscopic observations with FIRESS will be the key to investigate the nature of their powering source (e.g., AGN or star formation) and to study the physics of their ISM, by detecting and measuring fine structure lines in the mid- and far-IR domain.

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