TOI-2155 b: A Massive Brown Dwarf or a Very Low-Mass Star?

Allyson Bieryla; Anita Hafner; Boris S. Safonov; Cristilyn N. Watkins; Dennis M. Conti; Giuseppe Marino; Jaime A. Alvarado-Montes; Karen A. Collins; Keivan G. Stassun; Maria V. Goliguzova

REVIEW 5 major objections 4 minor 94 references

TOI-2155 b: A Massive Brown Dwarf or a Very Low-Mass Star?

T0 review · 5 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-04 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read A transiting companion of about 81 Jupiter masses, with a density of 110 grams per cubic centimeter, sits at the hydrogen-burning limit and is best classified as a brown dwarf rather than a very low-mass star.

desk verdict Well-measured companion near the H-burning boundary; the data do not prove it is a brown dwarf, and the paper should say so in the title. read the letter →

arxiv 2509.18503 v2 pith:JSMHAWRS submitted 2025-09-23 astro-ph.EP astro-ph.SR

Md Redyan Ahmed , Tansu Daylan , Theron W. Carmichael , Sarah L. Casewell , Anita Hafner , Jaime A. Alvarado-Montes , Allyson Bieryla , Samuel N. Quinn

show 9 more authors

Michael Calkins Karen A. Collins Cristilyn N. Watkins Keivan G. Stassun Boris S. Safonov Maria V. Goliguzova Giuseppe Marino Dennis M. Conti Peter Tuthill

This is my paper · ORCID

classification astro-ph.EPastro-ph.SR

keywords browndwarfshydrogen-burninglimittransitingcompanionmass-radiusrelationelectrondegeneracyradialvelocitysubstellarevolutiondensity

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper reports the discovery and characterization of TOI-2155 b, a short-period transiting companion of mass 81.1 Jupiter masses and radius 0.975 Jupiter radii, orbiting an F-type subgiant star. The paper argues that its very high bulk density, about 110 grams per cubic centimeter, and its inferred age of several billion years indicate that the object is supported by electron degeneracy pressure and does not sustain hydrogen fusion, placing it in the brown dwarf regime even though its mass slightly exceeds the classical 80-Jupiter-mass upper boundary. The authors aim to establish TOI-2155 b as a benchmark system that tests evolutionary models of substellar structure near the hydrogen-burning limit, where the distinction between a massive brown dwarf and a very low-mass star is otherwise ambiguous. Precisely measured masses, radii, and densities of transiting objects at this boundary are rare, and they directly constrain how the brown-dwarf/star transition is modeled.

What carries the argument

The argument is carried by the joint modeling of transit photometry and radial-velocity measurements, which yields the companion's mass, radius, and orbital parameters, and by the comparison of the resulting mass–radius–density relation against theoretical evolutionary isochrones. The central physical mechanism is electron degeneracy pressure: in a cooled, evolved brown dwarf, degeneracy support produces the high density and the characteristic mass–radius relation that distinguishes it from a hydrogen-fusing star, which would be inflated to a larger radius at the same mass. The paper uses the object's position on the mass–radius and mass–density diagrams, alongside its inferred age, to argue

What would settle it

A decisive test would be to measure the companion's intrinsic luminosity directly—for example, through a secondary eclipse or high-contrast imaging—and see whether it falls on the cooling track of a degenerate brown dwarf at 3.2 Gyr or on the main-sequence track of a very low-mass star of the same mass. Alternatively, a more precise dynamical mass that clearly exceeds the model-dependent hydrogen-burning minimum for the host star's metallicity (e.g., above about 85 Jupiter masses) would settle the classification, as would the detection of lithium in its atmosphere, which a 3.2-Gyr-old brown dw

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that TOI-2155 b, with a dynamically measured mass of 81.1 ± 1.1 Jupiter masses and a radius of 0.975 ± 0.008 Jupiter radii, is a high-mass brown dwarf rather than a very low-mass star. The argument rests on the object's very high bulk density, about 110 g/cm³, which the paper connects to electron degeneracy pressure, and on the absence of evidence for core hydrogen fusion at the system's estimated age of roughly 3.2 billion years. The paper acknowledges that the boundary between these two classes is set by theoretical evolutionary models, with current upper limits on the brown dwarf mass near 81.7 Jupiter masses under low-metallicity, cloud-free conditions, and that the

Load-bearing premise

The classification as a brown dwarf rests on theoretical model boundaries for the hydrogen-burning minimum mass and on inferring the absence of hydrogen fusion from density and age; if either is wrong, an 81-Jupiter-mass object could be a very low-mass star.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

If TOI-2155 b is a brown dwarf, it provides a rare precisely measured mass, radius, and density for an object at the hydrogen-burning limit, directly testing evolutionary models in that regime.
The system's very short orbital period (3.72 days) and nearly circular orbit place it in the brown dwarf desert, and its presence adds to evidence that a well-defined desert is not valid.
The mild radius inflation (about 2% larger than evolutionary model predictions) suggests that irradiation from the host star can subtly affect the structure of close-in brown dwarfs.
The low orbital eccentricity and the estimated circularization timescale shorter than the system age imply that tidal interaction has erased any primordial eccentricity.
The high mass ratio (companion to star ≈ 0.061) favors a stellar-like formation pathway, such as gravitational collapse or disk fragmentation, rather than a planet-like formation.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

Editorial inference: If the classification holds, TOI-2155 b becomes a calibration point that could sharpen the empirical location of the hydrogen-burning minimum mass, since its mass sits within 1–2 Jupiter masses of the theoretical boundary.
Editorial inference: The reported high density implies that any radius-inflation mechanism at this mass must be modest; a direct measurement of the companion's infrared emission (e.g., through a secondary eclipse) could test whether its intrinsic luminosity follows the degenerate cooling track or shows excess from residual nuclear burning.
Editorial inference: The system's age estimate is model-dependent; if future asteroseismic or gyrochronological constraints shift the age substantially, the interpretation of the object's internal structure would need revisiting.
Editorial inference: Comparing TOI-2155 b to other transiting companions above 80 Jupiter masses could reveal whether the mass–radius relation flattens at the boundary or whether some such objects are actually very low-mass stars, effectively mapping the empirical boundary.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

Dear X,

Quick take: this is a standard but careful TESS+RV characterization of a transiting companion at 81 M_J, right at the hydrogen-burning boundary. The measured mass, radius, and density are clean and mostly model-independent. The interpretive claim that it is a brown dwarf rather than a very low-mass star is not established by the data, and the paper concedes as much in Section 4. That should be the headline, not a buried caveat.

What's good: the joint Allesfitter fit of TESS photometry and TRES RVs is sensible; the RM-exclusion check is a nice robustness test; ground-based photometry and speckle imaging rule out obvious false positives and blended companions. The derived numbers (R_b ~ 0.975 R_J, rho ~ 110 g/cm^3) are precise and sit in the interesting regime near the transition. This is a legitimate addition to the ~50 known transiting BDs, and it does give modelers another anchor point.

Soft spots, in order of severity:

1. The BD vs low-mass star classification. The paper argues that high density plus gigayear age "strongly indicate" electron degeneracy support and no hydrogen fusion. That doesn't follow. A 0.077 M_sun star is also partially degenerate and would have a similar radius and mean density. The data do not discriminate. The Morley et al. 81.7 M_J ceiling is explicitly for low-metallicity, cloud-free conditions; this host is [M/H] = 0.13, so using that boundary to justify calling 81.1 M_J a BD is shaky. The paper's own caveat — "we cannot fully rule out the possibility that it is a low-mass star" — is more accurate than the confident wording in the abstract and Section 4.2.

2. The lithium statement (Section 4.4) is asserted without presenting any lithium-sensitive spectrum or equivalent width. That's a real omission. Also, lithium is destroyed below ~0.065 M_sun, so a lack of lithium would not distinguish a 0.077 M_sun star from a high-mass BD. Either show the spectrum or drop the claim.

3. Internal inconsistency: the abstract quotes R_b = 0.972+0.009-0.008, M_b = 80.6+1.0-1.1, rho = 109+3.1-3.3, while the body and Table 7 give R_b = 0.975±0.008, M_b = 81.1±1.1, rho = 110±3. Small but inexcusable in a submitted paper.

4. Data availability: "will be shared with the associated authors upon request" is too vague for a modern paper. The RVs and ground photometry should be in a repository.

Minor: the rotation period signal is marginal, and they say so; fine. The tidal circularization timescale is model-dependent, but they hedge appropriately.

Bottom line: this is a solid observational paper with an overreach in interpretation. With the lithium claim removed or backed up, the abstract/body numbers reconciled, and the classification language softened, it would be a useful contribution to the sample. I would send it to peer review. A good referee can push the authors to separate what is measured from what is inferred.

Referee Report

5 major / 4 minor

Summary. The paper reports the discovery and characterization of TOI-2155 b, a short-period (P = 3.7247 d) transiting companion to an F-type subgiant, using TESS photometry, TRES radial velocities, and ground-based follow-up photometry. Joint Allesfitter modeling gives R_b = 0.975 ± 0.008 R_J, M_b = 81.1 ± 1.1 M_J, and ρ_b = 110 ± 3 g cm^-3. The authors argue that the object lies at the brown-dwarf/very-low-mass-star boundary and, on the basis of its high density, inferred age of ~3.2 Gyr, and an asserted lack of lithium absorption, classify it as a brown dwarf supported by electron degeneracy pressure that does not sustain hydrogen fusion. The paper also discusses its position in the brown dwarf desert, its mild radius inflation relative to evolutionary models, and its likely stellar-like formation pathway.

Significance. If the measured mass, radius, and density are correct, TOI-2155 b is a valuable benchmark for substellar evolutionary models near the hydrogen-burning limit. The quantitative analysis has several strengths: the joint transit/RV fit uses standard public tools; an internal check excludes the Rossiter–McLaughlin affected RVs and recovers a consistent mass; high-resolution speckle imaging rules out close companions; and the stellar parameters are checked with an independent SED fit. The main weakness is interpretive: the brown-dwarf classification rests on theoretical model boundaries and on assertions—particularly the lithium claim—that are not adequately documented, and the paper itself concedes that a low-mass star cannot be fully ruled out.

major comments (5)

[§4, §4.2, Fig. 7] The central claim that density ~110 g cm^-3 and age ~3.2 Gyr 'strongly indicate' electron degeneracy support and absence of hydrogen fusion does not follow. A very low-mass star of ~0.077 M_sun has a radius near 0.10 R_sun (~0.96 R_J) and a mean density of order 100 g cm^-3, and is itself partially degenerate. The measured R_b and ρ_b therefore cannot, by themselves, discriminate between a cooled brown dwarf and a barely hydrogen-burning star. The comparison in Fig. 7 uses the Baraffe (2003) and Marley (2021) models, which are the very theoretical predictions under test, and the quoted 81.7 M_J ceiling from Morley et al. (2024) applies to low-metallicity, cloud-free conditions, whereas the host has [M/H] = 0.13. Please reframe the central claim as an object at the BD/star boundary, state the model-dependence explicitly, and remove or strongly qualify the 'does not sustain hydrogen fusion
[§4.4] The lithium argument is not evidence as presented. No spectrum, equivalent width, or upper limit is shown; the 'lack of detectable lithium absorption' is simply asserted. More importantly, at ~0.077 M_sun lithium is depleted in both a very low-mass star and a high-mass brown dwarf (lithium burning occurs near ~0.065 M_sun), so a non-detection cannot separate these two cases. Either present the actual lithium constraint with data and an upper limit, or delete this claim from the classification argument.
[Abstract vs §3.2/Table 7] The reported physical parameters are internally inconsistent. The opening abstract gives R_b = 0.972^{+0.009}_{-0.008} R_J, M_b = 80.6^{+1.0}_{-1.1} M_J, and ρ_b = 109^{+3.1}_{-3.3} g cm^-3, while the full-text abstract and Table 7 quote R_b = 0.975 ± 0.008 R_J, M_b = 81.1 ± 1.1 M_J, and ρ_b = 110 ± 3 g cm^-3. The period uncertainties also differ. These values must be reconciled, and every quoted number should match the final fit.
[§3.1.1, Table 4] The stellar mass is quoted as M⋆ = 1.33 ± 0.008 M☉, a relative precision of 0.6%. This is implausibly small for an SED/Torres-relation estimate and is not justified in the text. Since the companion mass is derived from the RV semi-amplitude together with M⋆, an underestimate of the stellar-mass uncertainty propagates directly into M_b and its quoted precision. Please document the stellar-mass error budget, including the correlations among Teff, log g, [Fe/H], and extinction, or report a more realistic uncertainty.
[§3.2, Fig. 5] The ground-based photometry (WST, LCO, WBR) is excluded from the global fit, with the only stated reason being that it lacks 'a sufficiently long baseline.' Because the companion radius—and hence the density and the entire classification discussion—rests on TESS photometry alone, this exclusion needs quantitative justification. Please show that including the ground-based transits with appropriate detrending does not change R_b, or quantify the systematic uncertainty introduced by their exclusion.

minor comments (4)

[§2.2.2] 'The long-exposure vision was 1.45″' should read 'the seeing was 1.45″.'
[§3.2] The independent Allesfitter fit to the ground-based photometry is mentioned but not described. State the priors, the fitted transit parameters, and the resulting values, or move this to an appendix.
[§7] Data availability says TRES and ground-based photometry 'will be shared with the associated authors upon request.' For reproducibility in a journal article, please provide a permanent repository or machine-readable tables.
[References] There are minor reference inconsistencies, e.g., in-text 'Barkaoui, K. et al. 2025' versus the reference list format. Please standardize all author-year citations.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the companion's mass, radius, and density come from independent transit and RV fits, and the brown dwarf classification is an external model comparison rather than a fitted input.

full rationale

I traced the derivation chain in the manuscript. TOI-2155 b's fundamental parameters are obtained from a joint Allesfitter fit to TESS transit photometry and TRES radial velocities: Mb = 81.1 +/- 1.1 MJ, Rb = 0.975 +/- 0.008 RJ, and rho_b = 110 +/- 3 g cm^-3 (Section 3.2, Tables 6-7). These quantities are not fitted to brown-dwarf evolutionary tracks; they are measured from the light curve and Keplerian RV signal. The stellar mass, radius, and age used for context come from SPC spectroscopy, SED fitting, and MIST/EXOFASTv2, which are external to the companion's mass-radius measurement. The paper's classification of TOI-2155 b as a brown dwarf is an interpretive step that invokes external theoretical models (Burrows et al. 2001; Chabrier et al. 2000; Morley et al. 2024) and compares the measured radius/density to isochrones from Baraffe et al. (2003) and Marley et al. (2021). No equation in the paper reduces a predicted quantity to a fitted parameter, and no load-bearing conclusion is forced by a self-citation chain. The manuscript itself explicitly concedes the classification is not definitive: 'we cannot fully rule out the possibility that TOI-2155 b is a low-mass star' (Section 4). The lithium argument in Section 4.4 is presented without a spectrum or equivalent width, and the inference from high density to electron-degeneracy support and absence of hydrogen fusion is physically model-dependent; however, these are evidentiary or model-application concerns, not circularity. The only self-citations (e.g., Allesfitter by Daylan, SED methods by Stassun & Torres, boundary discussions citing Carmichael et al.) are methodological or contextual and do not carry the central derivation. Therefore the paper is self-contained for its measured parameters and the circularity score is 0.

Assumptions & free parameters 10 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The paper introduces no new physical entities. The main unpaid premises are the model-dependent mapping from photometry and spectra to stellar and companion properties, plus the theoretical brown-dwarf boundary. Nuisance fit parameters are standard but numerous.

free parameters (10)

TESS limb darkening q1 (Kipping parametrization) = 0.109+0.049/-0.036
Fitted from transit shape in Allesfitter; affects radius-ratio and depth estimates.
TESS limb darkening q2 = 0.37+0.33/-0.24
Same as q1; weakly constrained.
sqrt(e) cos(omega) = 0.057+0.048/-0.065
Orbital eccentricity parametrization fitted with uniform priors.
sqrt(e) sin(omega) = -0.034+0.094/-0.086
Orbital eccentricity parametrization fitted with uniform priors.
TESS white noise log sigma = -6.3495+0.0066/-0.0066
Nuisance noise parameter in joint fit.
TRES RV jitter ln sigma = -1.25+0.20/-0.18
Added scatter for RV data.
TESS baseline offset = 0.000755+0.000022/-0.000021
Constant offset per dataset.
TRES baseline offset = -1.591+0.085/-0.089
RV zero-point offset.
Stellar age from MIST/EXOFASTv2 fit = 3.2+1.9/-0.93 Gyr
Used to place TOI-2155 b on isochrones and argue BD status; derived from SED and isochrone fit rather than direct measurement.
Interstellar extinction A_V in SED fit = 0.16 +/- 0.08
Free in PHOENIX SED fit; affects stellar luminosity, radius, and age.

assumptions (6)

standard math Kepler's third law and transit geometry connect fitted dimensionless parameters to physical masses and radii.
Used throughout Section 3.2 to convert fit parameters into physical values.
domain assumption MIST isochrones and PHOENIX/MESA atmosphere models correctly translate Teff, [Fe/H], photometry, and parallax into stellar mass, radius, and age.
Section 3.1: stellar radius drives companion radius; stellar mass drives companion mass.
domain assumption The theoretical brown-dwarf upper boundary of 81.7 M_J (Morley et al. 2024, under low metallicity and cloud-free conditions) is relevant to TOI-2155 b.
Section 1 and Figures 7-8 use this boundary to place TOI-2155 b inside the BD regime despite mass above the classical 80 M_J limit.
domain assumption Electron degeneracy pressure and the absence of sustained hydrogen fusion can be inferred from bulk density, age, and model comparisons rather than from direct spectra.
Section 4 and conclusion classify the object as a BD; a very low-mass star is not directly ruled out.
domain assumption No undetected stellar companion dilutes the TESS transit; speckle sensitivity limits and Gaia completeness cover the relevant angular separations.
Section 2.2.2: a blended companion would bias radius and density.
domain assumption TRES RV calibration, template construction, and jitter treatment produce unbiased velocities; including or excluding RM-affected points does not change the mass.
Sections 2.2.3 and 3.2.

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Pith. "Pith review of TOI-2155 b: A Massive Brown Dwarf or a Very Low-Mass Star?." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/JSMHAWRS

@misc{pith2026250918503,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: TOI-2155 b: A Massive Brown Dwarf or a Very Low-Mass Star?},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/JSMHAWRS}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2509.18503}
}

abstract

We present TOI-2155\,b, a massive transiting companion, discovered using data from NASA's Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) mission and confirmed with ground-based RV measurements from the Tillinghast Reflector Echelle Spectrograph (TRES). We also analyze ground-based follow-up photometric data from the Wendelstein Observatory (WST), Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope (LCOGT), and Wild Boar Remote Observatory (WBR). TOI-2155\,b is a short-period companion with {$P= 3.7246950 \pm{0.0000014}$}~days. The radius and mass of TOI-2155\,b are found to be $R_b = 0.972^{+0.009}_{-0.008} \,\mathrm{R_J}$ and $M_b = 80.6^{+1.0}_{-1.1} \,\mathrm{M_J}$, respectively, corresponding to a density of {$\rho_b= 109^{+3.1}_{-3.3}$ g cm$^{-3}$}. The F-type subgiant host star has an effective temperature of $T_{\rm eff} = 6085\pm 78$ K, a radius $R_{\thinstar} = 1.705^{+0.066}_{-0.064}$ $\mathrm{R_\odot}$ and a mass $M_\star = 1.33 \pm 0.008$~M$_\odot$. With a mass close to the hydrogen-burning minimum mass, TOI-2155\,b lies at the boundary between brown dwarfs and low-mass stars. Its measured mass, radius, and density place it in a transitional region, where distinguishing between a massive brown dwarf and a very low-mass star is not straightforward. TOI-2155\,b therefore provides a valuable benchmark for testing evolutionary models of stellar and substellar structure near the hydrogen-burning limit.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2509.18503 by the authors.

**Figure 1.** Data of TOI-2155 b from eight TESS sectors. The blue points represent the original normalized flux from the TESS-SPOC pipeline. The red points show the detrended flux after applying w¯otan’s biweight algorithm with a window length of 0.5 days. The detrended light curve was used in the global modeling of the TOI-2155 system [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_1.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** The 5σ sensitivity limits of the SAI speckle observations of TOI-2155. The autocorrelation function is given in the inset. No nearby contaminating sources are detected. We observed one full transit window on UTC 2020 September 16 with no filter from the 0.24 m telescope at Wild Boar Remote Observatory (WBR) in San Casciano in Val di Pesa, Firenze, Italy. The telescope is equipped with an SBIG ST8-XME detector with … view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** We use the results from the EXOFASTv2 fit to estimate the age of TOI-2155. The best-fitting derived value is Age = 3.2 +1.9 −0.93 Gyr. The red points show the observed photometric data, with horizontal bars indicating the effective widths of each bandpass. The blue points correspond to model fluxes derived from the best-fitting Kurucz stellar atmosphere model. 3.1.1. Stellar mass, radius, and age We used Mesa Isoc… view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (7 more)

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Spectral energy distribution of TOI-2155. Red symbols represent the observed photometric measurements, with horizontal bars indicating the effective width of the passband. Blue symbols are the model fluxes from the best– fit PHOENIX atmosphere model (black). The inset …

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: (a) TESS phase-folded data (gray points) with Allesfitter model (red curve), and binned data (blue points). The lower panel shows the residuals after subtracting the model and baseline from the relative flux. (b–d) Phase-folded ground-based photometry data from WST, WB…

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: Blue points show the TRES multi-order relative RV measurements after subtracting the baseline component. The red curve represents the best model from Allesfitter. The lower panel shows the residuals between the observed RVs and the full model (orbital solution + baseli…

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: Mass–radius diagram for known transiting BDs (blue circles) and low-mass stars (orange stars) within 12-110 MJ. TOI-2155 b is highlighted in red with a diamond marker and annotated. This figure is adapted from [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_7.png]

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Mass-density distribution of transiting BDs and low-mass stars. Transiting BDs are shown as circles colored by host stars’ effective temperature (Teff ) and scaled in size by their radius. Star symbols with similar temperature color coding represent low-mass stars. Ver…

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: Orbital period-Mass diagram for transiting BDs (circles) and low-mass stars (star symbols), color-coded by orbital eccentricity. TOI-2155 b is highlighted with a red X. Vertical dashed red lines mark the canonical boundaries of the BD regime (13–81.7 MJ), while the dot…

**Figure 10.** Figure 10: The corner plot from the nested sampling fit of TOI-2155 b. Henderson, B. A., Casewell, S. L., Goad, M. R., et al. 2024, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, stae508 Hippke, M., David, T. J., Mulders, G. D., & Heller, R. 2019, The Astronomical Journal, 1…

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 4, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.

[1] [1]

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