pith. sign in

arxiv: 2605.00223 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-30 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Extinction law and stellar mass in the Nuclear Bulge from kinematically-selected red clump stars

\'A. Valenzuela Navarro , M. Zoccali , E. Valenti , R. Contreras Ramos , A. Rojas-Arriagada , A. Luna , R. Albarrac\'in , C. Gallart
show 5 more authors
J. Olivares Carvajal F. Gran C. Salvo-Guajardo G. Nandakumar A. Renzini
This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-09 19:34 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords extinction lawNuclear Bulgered clump starsstellar massMilky Waykinematic selectionreddening mapinterstellar extinction
0
0 comments X

The pith

Kinematically selected red clump stars yield an extinction law and stellar mass for the Nuclear Bulge.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper establishes that selecting red clump stars by their kinematics provides a way to measure the extinction law in the Nuclear Bulge and estimate its total stellar mass. This matters because extreme and variable dust extinction has long hidden the true stellar properties and density in this central region of the Milky Way. The method produces specific absorption ratios at near-infrared wavelengths and a completeness-corrected count of stars that gives a mass value. It also generates a high-resolution map that reveals filamentary dust features and gradients across known molecular clouds.

Core claim

By kinematically selecting red clump stars belonging to the Nuclear Bulge, the extinction law is determined with a total-to-selective ratio A_K/E_{H-K} = 1.259 ± 0.074 and an extinction ratio A_H/A_K = 1.794 ± 0.046. A high-spatial resolution reddening map is created showing clear filamentary structures and a gradient in extinction over the giant molecular cloud G0.253+0.016. The stellar mass of the Nuclear Bulge is computed from completeness-corrected red clump star counts as 12.2 ± 2.6 × 10^8 solar masses, in agreement with other estimates.

What carries the argument

Kinematically-selected red clump stars, which isolate Nuclear Bulge members to measure differential reddening and to count stars for mass estimation.

If this is right

  • The measured extinction ratios can be applied to correct photometry of other stars observed in the same lines of sight.
  • The high-resolution reddening map enables studies of how dust is distributed relative to molecular clouds such as the Brick.
  • The stellar mass estimate can be compared directly with dynamical and star-count models of the galactic center.
  • Completeness corrections applied to the star counts improve density estimates in regions of high and variable extinction.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same kinematic selection technique could be tested on other stellar tracers to map extinction laws across additional obscured zones of the Milky Way.
  • An accurate Nuclear Bulge mass constrains the contribution of this component to the overall bulge mass budget and its formation timescale.
  • Filamentary dust structures visible in the map may trace gas inflows or shear flows driven by the galactic bar.

Load-bearing premise

Kinematically selected red clump stars are assumed to belong to the Nuclear Bulge with negligible contamination and to have sufficiently uniform and known intrinsic colors and luminosities.

What would settle it

Independent spectroscopic or photometric measurements showing that the selected red clump sample contains substantial contamination from disk or bar stars, or that their intrinsic properties vary more than assumed, would invalidate the derived extinction ratios and mass.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.00223 by A. Luna, A. Renzini, A. Rojas-Arriagada, \'A. Valenzuela Navarro, C. Gallart, C. Salvo-Guajardo, E. Valenti, F. Gran, G. Nandakumar, J. Olivares Carvajal, M. Zoccali, R. Albarrac\'in, R. Contreras Ramos.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: One key aspect critical for all the science in the NB is the characterization of the extinction and reddening towards this par￾ticular direction of the MW. Previous studies, including GNC survey, have shown that extinction values are severe, which get as high as AV ≥ 30 mag and AKs ≥ 2.5 mag (e.g. Nishiyama et al. 2006; Schödel et al. 2010; Nogueras-Lara et al. 2020). More￾over, there is evidence for a wav… view at source ↗
Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Top: Image of the NB of the MW from GLIMPSE360 survey (Whitney et al. 2011) from Spitzer Space Telescope. The red color represents 4.5 µm, and the blue color 3.6 µm. The black line surrounding the dark-shaded area indicates the footprint of our dataset, as shown in the bottom panel. The gray dotted line encompassing the white-shaded area depicts the GNC survey area. Bottom: Five HAWK-I pointings in KS filt… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: CMD of all the NBFs colored by density. Key observed fea￾tures are labeled. The colorbar shows the stellar number density, and the color scale is on a logarithmic scale to enhance the visibility of other features less populated than the RC. The typical photometric errors are shown on the left. The red dots are the photometric errors reported by DAOPHOT/ALLFRAME, whereas the black error bars are computed wi… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: RC position using the unsharp masking technique. The green dotted line shows the upper and lower limits of RC selection. Left: Hess diagram of our complete catalog. A logarithmic stretch was applied, in a range from 1 to 2 000. Distinctive features are observed, such as the main sequence of foreground stars, the RC, and the AGB bump. Right: Hess diagram after applying the unsharp masking technique. The RC … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Same image as bottom panel of Fig.1, showing examples of CMD in three different 50′′ × 50′′ regions. In all insets, the visually selected bluer and redder ends of each RC are shown in vertical blue and red dashed lines, respectively. The left inset shows a thin, well-defined RGB with a prominent RC in H − K ∼ 1. The middle inset is shows two RC features: one with low extinction at H − K ∼ 1, and another wi… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Determination of the extinction law. All the panels and inset share the same color coding and line style for the following: the best-fit for the RC (computed in Sec. 3.1) is shown with a white dashed line; the derived extinction law is shown as a gold dotted line; the color where RC stars change the direction of rotation with respect to Sgr A* is represented with a red solid line and a shadowed gray area; … view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Reddening maps available for the NB region from different authors. A: This work. B: Sanders et al. (2022). C: Zelakiewicz et al. (2025). D: Surot et al. (2020). Panel D map uses J instead of H. In all panels, a dimmed white-dashed rectangle shows the location of the Brick, we show later in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Zoom in of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Same Hess diagram as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Star counts of field NBF054. Left: K0LF of field NBF054. The black line shows the star counts corrected by completeness. For comparison, the gray line represents the uncorrected LF. The spline modeling the RGB is shown in green dashed lines. The fitting regions for the spline are shown as a vertical gray area. The LF with subtracted RGB LF is represented with a red area. Right: The K0 LF with RGB subtracte… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Stellar density profile, in number of stars per arcmin2 as func￾tion of the galactic longitude. The black triangles show the density pro￾file computed by Valenti et al. (2016) in their [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_10.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The Nuclear Bulge of the Milky Way harbors stellar populations that provide crucial insights into galaxy formation processes and serve as a nearby analog for understanding bulge formation in external galaxies. However, detailed studies of this region are severely hampered by extreme and highly variable interstellar extinction, which obscures the intrinsic stellar properties and impedes accurate stellar mass determinations. Our goal is to measure the extinction law towards the Nuclear Bulge and to estimate its stellar density. We developed a method to determine the extinction law towards the Nuclear Bulge by kinematically selecting red clump stars belonging to this region. We created a high-spatial resolution reddening map, and computed stellar mass with completeness-corrected red clump star counts, scaled from empirical measurements. We find a total-to-selective extinction ratio of $\mathrm{A_K/{E_{H-K}} = 1.259 \pm 0.074}$, and an extinction ratio of $\mathrm{A_H/A_K = 1.794 \pm 0.046}$, which are consistent with previous works. The high-spatial resolution reddening map shows clear filamentary structures, and a gradient in the extinction over the giant molecular cloud G0.253+0.016 (i.e., the Brick). From the star counts, we measured a stellar mass of $\mathrm{12.2~\pm2.6\times10^8~M_{\odot}}$ for the Nuclear Bulge, in agreement with other mass estimates.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper develops a method to measure the extinction law towards the Nuclear Bulge by kinematically selecting red clump stars. It reports A_K/E_{H-K} = 1.259 ± 0.074 and A_H/A_K = 1.794 ± 0.046 (consistent with prior work), presents a high-resolution reddening map with filamentary structures and a gradient across G0.253+0.016 (the Brick), and derives a Nuclear Bulge stellar mass of 12.2 ± 2.6 × 10^8 M_⊙ from completeness-corrected star counts scaled to empirical measurements.

Significance. If the kinematic selection isolates a clean Nuclear Bulge sample, the work supplies an independent near-IR extinction law measurement in a heavily obscured region and a star-count-based mass estimate that aligns with other determinations. These are useful benchmarks for Milky Way central structure models and for bulge analogs in external galaxies. The direct use of observed star counts with empirical scaling is a methodological strength when contamination and completeness are adequately controlled.

major comments (2)
  1. [Method (kinematic selection)] The kinematic selection of red clump stars (described in the method) is load-bearing for both the extinction ratios and the mass estimate in the abstract, yet no quantitative contamination fraction from foreground disk stars (via velocity modeling or mock catalogs) is provided. Overlap in velocity distributions could systematically bias the observed (H-K) colors and the completeness-corrected counts used for the 12.2 ± 2.6 × 10^8 M_⊙ result.
  2. [Results (star counts and mass)] Completeness correction factors are invoked for the star-count mass but are listed among the free parameters without derivation details, uncertainty propagation, or validation against the data selection criteria. This directly affects the quoted mass uncertainty and its agreement with other estimates.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] The abstract notation for the extinction ratios is mostly clear but could standardize the subscript formatting (e.g., E_{H-K}) for consistency with the full text.
  2. [Results (reddening map)] The reddening map description would benefit from explicit reference to a figure panel showing the gradient across the Brick and any comparison to prior maps.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their thorough review and constructive comments. We address the major points below and will revise the manuscript accordingly.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: The kinematic selection of red clump stars (described in the method) is load-bearing for both the extinction ratios and the mass estimate in the abstract, yet no quantitative contamination fraction from foreground disk stars (via velocity modeling or mock catalogs) is provided. Overlap in velocity distributions could systematically bias the observed (H-K) colors and the completeness-corrected counts used for the 12.2 ± 2.6 × 10^8 M_⊙ result.

    Authors: We agree that a quantitative assessment of foreground contamination would strengthen the robustness of the kinematic selection. In the revised manuscript we will add an analysis of the velocity distributions to estimate the contamination fraction from disk stars, including a discussion of potential biases on the derived extinction ratios and stellar mass. revision: yes

  2. Referee: Completeness correction factors are invoked for the star-count mass but are listed among the free parameters without derivation details, uncertainty propagation, or validation against the data selection criteria. This directly affects the quoted mass uncertainty and its agreement with other estimates.

    Authors: We acknowledge that additional details on the completeness corrections are required. The revised manuscript will expand the methods section to describe the derivation of the completeness factors, their validation with respect to the selection criteria, and the propagation of their uncertainties into the final mass estimate. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; results are direct measurements from data

full rationale

The paper derives the extinction ratios A_K/E_{H-K} and A_H/A_K from observed colors of kinematically selected red clump stars after subtracting assumed intrinsic colors, and the mass from completeness-corrected star counts scaled by empirical luminosity. These steps are observational computations, not reductions by construction to fitted parameters renamed as predictions or to self-citations. No load-bearing uniqueness theorem, ansatz smuggling, or self-definitional loop is present in the described chain. The consistency with prior work is reported but does not substitute for the measurement itself.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

Based solely on the abstract, the work relies on standard domain assumptions about red clump stars and kinematic membership. No new entities are introduced. One implied free parameter is the completeness correction used for mass scaling.

free parameters (1)
  • completeness correction factors
    Used to scale observed red clump star counts to total stellar mass; specific values or derivation method not detailed in abstract.
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Red clump stars possess well-defined, environment-independent intrinsic colors and luminosities suitable for extinction measurements
    Required to convert observed photometry into extinction values and ratios.
  • domain assumption Kinematic criteria can isolate Nuclear Bulge members with low contamination from disk or foreground stars
    Central to the selection method described.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5634 in / 1535 out tokens · 50147 ms · 2026-05-09T19:34:44.564917+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

94 extracted references · 94 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    2001, A&A, 379, L44 Albarracín, R., Zoccali, M., Olivares Carvajal, J., et al

    Alard, C. 2001, A&A, 379, L44 Albarracín, R., Zoccali, M., Olivares Carvajal, J., et al. 2025, A&A, 693, A28 Alonso-García, J., Dékány, I., Catelan, M., et al. 2015, AJ, 149, 99 Alonso-García, J., Minniti, D., Catelan, M., et al. 2017, ApJ, 849, L13

    work page 2001

  2. [2]

    & Gallart, C

    Aparicio, A. & Gallart, C. 1995, AJ, 110, 2105

    work page 1995

  3. [3]

    Y ., Hubin, N., et al

    Arsenault, R., Madec, P. Y ., Hubin, N., et al. 2008, in Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, V ol. 7015, Adaptive Optics Systems, ed. N. Hubin, C. E. Max, & P. L. Wizinowich, 701524 Astropy Collaboration, Price-Whelan, A. M., Lim, P. L., et al. 2022, ApJ, 935, 167 Astropy Collaboration, Price-Whelan, A. M., Sip˝ocz...

    work page 2008

  4. [4]

    & Kawata, D

    Baba, J. & Kawata, D. 2020, MNRAS, 492, 4500

    work page 2020

  5. [5]

    A., Churchwell, E., Babler, B

    Benjamin, R. A., Churchwell, E., Babler, B. L., et al. 2003, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 115, 953

    work page 2003

  6. [6]

    A., et al

    Bittner, A., Sánchez-Blázquez, P., Gadotti, D. A., et al. 2020, A&A, 643, A65

    work page 2020

  7. [7]

    2000, A&AS, 143, 33

    Bonnarel, F., Fernique, P., Bienaymé, O., et al. 2000, A&AS, 143, 33

    work page 2000

  8. [8]

    C., Casertano, S., et al

    Calamida, A., Sahu, K. C., Casertano, S., et al. 2015, ApJ, 810, 8

    work page 2015

  9. [9]

    A., Clayton, G

    Cardelli, J. A., Clayton, G. C., & Mathis, J. S. 1989, ApJ, 345, 245

    work page 1989

  10. [10]

    2006, in Society of Photo- Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, V ol

    Casali, M., Pirard, J.-F., Kissler-Patig, M., et al. 2006, in Society of Photo- Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, V ol. 6269, Ground-based and Airborne Instrumentation for Astronomy, ed. I. S. McLean & M. Iye, 62690W

    work page 2006

  11. [11]

    L., Meade, M

    Churchwell, E., Babler, B. L., Meade, M. R., et al. 2009, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 121, 213 6 http://www.astropy.org Article number, page 13 A&A proofs:manuscript no. aa58263-25 Table 2.Mass estimates in the Nuclear Bulge region compared with literature. RegionMσ M Method [108 M⊙] [10 8 M⊙] References NBF region (same obser...

    work page 2009

  12. [12]

    2021, The Messenger, 182, 17 De Marchi, G., Panagia, N., Sabbi, E., et al

    Davies, R., Hörmann, V ., Rabien, S., et al. 2021, The Messenger, 182, 17 De Marchi, G., Panagia, N., Sabbi, E., et al. 2016, MNRAS, 455, 4373 de Sá-Freitas, C., Fragkoudi, F., Gadotti, D. A., et al. 2023, A&A, 671, A8 de Sá-Freitas, C., Gadotti, D. A., Fragkoudi, F., et al. 2025, A&A, 698, A5

    work page 2021

  13. [13]

    2016, MNRAS, 462, L41

    Fragkoudi, F., Athanassoula, E., & Bosma, A. 2016, MNRAS, 462, L41

    work page 2016

  14. [14]

    K., Patrick, L

    Fritz, T. K., Patrick, L. R., Feldmeier-Krause, A., et al. 2021, A&A, 649, A83

    work page 2021

  15. [15]

    A., Sánchez-Blázquez, P., Falcón-Barroso, J., et al

    Gadotti, D. A., Sánchez-Blázquez, P., Falcón-Barroso, J., et al. 2019, MNRAS, 482, 506

    work page 2019

  16. [16]

    Gallart, C., Aparicio, A., & Vilchez, J. M. 1996, AJ, 112, 1928

    work page 1996

  17. [17]

    2016, ARA&A, 54, 95

    Girardi, L. 2016, ARA&A, 54, 95

    work page 2016

  18. [18]

    A., Minniti, D., Valenti, E., et al

    Gonzalez, O. A., Minniti, D., Valenti, E., et al. 2018, MNRAS, 481, L130 GRA VITY Collaboration. 2019, A&A, 625, L10 GRA VITY Collaboration. 2022, A&A, 657, L12

    work page 2018

  19. [19]

    Groenewegen, M. A. T. 2008, A&A, 488, 935

    work page 2008

  20. [20]

    2021, The Messenger, 182, 33

    Hammer, F., Morris, S., Cuby, J.-G., et al. 2021, The Messenger, 182, 33

    work page 2021

  21. [21]

    R., Millman, K

    Harris, C. R., Millman, K. J., van der Walt, S. J., et al. 2020, Nature, 585, 357

    work page 2020

  22. [22]

    Harris, W. E. 1990, PASP, 102, 949

    work page 1990

  23. [23]

    Harris, W. E. & Speagle, J. S. 2024, AJ, 168, 38

    work page 2024

  24. [24]

    D., Barnes, A

    Henshaw, J. D., Barnes, A. T., Battersby, C., et al. 2023, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, V ol. 534, Protostars and Planets VII, ed. S. Inutsuka, Y . Aikawa, T. Muto, K. Tomida, & M. Tamura, 83

    work page 2023

  25. [25]

    D., Ginsburg, A., Haworth, T

    Henshaw, J. D., Ginsburg, A., Haworth, T. J., et al. 2019, MNRAS, 485, 2457

    work page 2019

  26. [26]

    Anderson, Alberto Cellino, Claus Fabricius, Michael Davidson, and Lennart Lindegren

    Hobbs, D., Høg, E., Mora, A., et al. 2016, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:1609.07325

    work page arXiv 2016

  27. [27]

    W., Do, T., Lu, J

    Hosek, M. W., Do, T., Lu, J. R., et al. 2022, ApJ, 939, 68

    work page 2022

  28. [28]

    W., Lu, J

    Hosek, Jr., M. W., Lu, J. R., Anderson, J., et al. 2018, ApJ, 855, 13

    work page 2018

  29. [29]

    H., Sormani, M

    Hunter, G. H., Sormani, M. C., Beckmann, J. P., et al. 2024, A&A, 692, A216

    work page 2024

  30. [30]

    S., Babler, B

    Indebetouw, R., Mathis, J. S., Babler, B. L., et al. 2005, ApJ, 619, 931

    work page 2005

  31. [31]

    2024, PASJ, 76, 386

    Kawata, D., Kawahara, H., Gouda, N., et al. 2024, PASJ, 76, 386

    work page 2024

  32. [32]

    Kennicutt, Jr., R. C. 1998, ApJ, 498, 541

    work page 1998

  33. [33]

    F., Casali, M., et al

    Kissler-Patig, M., Pirard, J. F., Casali, M., et al. 2008, A&A, 491, 941

    work page 2008

  34. [34]

    Kruijssen, J. M. D. & Longmore, S. N. 2013, MNRAS, 435, 2598

    work page 2013

  35. [35]

    Launhardt, R., Zylka, R., & Mezger, P. G. 2002, A&A, 384, 112

    work page 2002

  36. [36]

    Li, Z., Shen, J., Gerhard, O., & Clarke, J. P. 2022, ApJ, 925, 71

    work page 2022

  37. [37]

    L., et al

    Lipman, D., Battersby, C., Walker, D. L., et al. 2025, ApJ, 984, 159

    work page 2025

  38. [38]

    N., Bally, J., Testi, L., et al

    Longmore, S. N., Bally, J., Testi, L., et al. 2013, MNRAS, 429, 987

    work page 2013

  39. [39]

    A., Whitworth, A

    Marsh, K. A., Whitworth, A. P., Lomax, O., et al. 2017, MNRAS, 471, 2730

    work page 2017

  40. [40]

    G., Duschl, W

    Mezger, P. G., Duschl, W. J., & Zylka, R. 1996, A&A Rev., 7, 289

    work page 1996

  41. [41]

    W., Emerson, J

    Minniti, D., Lucas, P. W., Emerson, J. P., et al. 2010, New Astron., 15, 433

    work page 2010

  42. [42]

    H., Sbordone, L., Rojas-Arriagada, A., et al

    Minniti, J. H., Sbordone, L., Rojas-Arriagada, A., et al. 2020, A&A, 640, A92

    work page 2020

  43. [43]

    2016, A&A, 591, A149

    Molinari, S., Schisano, E., Elia, D., et al. 2016, A&A, 591, A149

    work page 2016

  44. [44]

    2010, A&A, 518, L100

    Molinari, S., Swinyard, B., Bally, J., et al. 2010, A&A, 518, L100

    work page 2010

  45. [45]

    2006, ApJ, 638, 839

    Nishiyama, S., Nagata, T., Kusakabe, N., et al. 2006, ApJ, 638, 839

    work page 2006

  46. [46]

    2009, ApJ, 696, 1407 Nogueras-Lara , F., Schödel, R., Gallego-Calvente, A

    Nishiyama, S., Tamura, M., Hatano, H., et al. 2009, ApJ, 696, 1407 Nogueras-Lara , F., Schödel, R., Gallego-Calvente, A. T., et al. 2020, Nature Astronomy, 4, 377

    work page 2009

  47. [47]

    T., et al

    Nogueras-Lara, F., Schödel, R., Gallego-Calvente, A. T., et al. 2019, A&A, 631, A20

    work page 2019

  48. [48]

    2020, A&A, 641, A141

    Nogueras-Lara, F., Schödel, R., Neumayer, N., et al. 2020, A&A, 641, A141

    work page 2020

  49. [49]

    2023, A&A, 671, L10 pandas development team, T

    Nogueras-Lara, F., Schultheis, M., Najarro, F., et al. 2023, A&A, 671, L10 pandas development team, T. 2020, pandas-dev/pandas: Pandas

    work page 2023

  50. [50]

    2010, in Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, V ol

    Paufique, J., Bruton, A., Glindemann, A., et al. 2010, in Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, V ol. 7736, Adaptive Optics Systems II, ed. B. L. Ellerbroek, M. Hart, N. Hubin, & P. L. Wiz- inowich, 77361P

    work page 2010

  51. [51]

    2011, Journal of Machine Learning Research, 12, 2825

    Pedregosa, F., Varoquaux, G., Gramfort, A., et al. 2011, Journal of Machine Learning Research, 12, 2825

    work page 2011

  52. [52]

    & Zoccali, M

    Piotto, G. & Zoccali, M. 1999, A&A, 345, 485

    work page 1999

  53. [53]

    2004, in Society of Photo- Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, V ol

    Pirard, J.-F., Kissler-Patig, M., Moorwood, A., et al. 2004, in Society of Photo- Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, V ol. 5492, Ground-based Instrumentation for Astronomy, ed. A. F. M. Moorwood & M. Iye, 1763–1772

    work page 2004

  54. [54]

    Plevne, O., Önal Ta¸ s, Ö., Bilir, S., & Seabroke, G. M. 2020, ApJ, 893, 108

    work page 2020

  55. [55]

    2015, MNRAS, 448, 713

    Portail, M., Wegg, C., Gerhard, O., & Martinez-Valpuesta, I. 2015, MNRAS, 448, 713

    work page 2015

  56. [56]

    M., Longmore, S

    Rathborne, J. M., Longmore, S. N., Jackson, J. M., et al. 2014, ApJ, 786, 140

    work page 2014

  57. [57]

    Reid, M. J. & Brunthaler, A. 2020, ApJ, 892, 39

    work page 2020

  58. [58]

    2018, ApJ, 863, 16

    Renzini, A., Gennaro, M., Zoccali, M., et al. 2018, ApJ, 863, 16

    work page 2018

  59. [59]

    Rodriguez-Fernandez, N. J. & Combes, F. 2008, A&A, 489, 115

    work page 2008

  60. [60]

    K., Hempel, M., Alonso-García, J., et al

    Saito, R. K., Hempel, M., Alonso-García, J., et al. 2024, A&A, 689, A148

    work page 2024

  61. [61]

    L., Smith, L., González-Fernández, C., Lucas, P., & Minniti, D

    Sanders, J. L., Smith, L., González-Fernández, C., Lucas, P., & Minniti, D. 2022, MNRAS, 514, 2407

    work page 2022

  62. [62]

    F., Meisner, A

    Schlafly, E. F., Meisner, A. M., & Green, G. M. 2019, ApJS, 240, 30

    work page 2019

  63. [63]

    1959, ApJ, 129, 243 Schödel, R., Najarro, F., Muzic, K., & Eckart, A

    Schmidt, M. 1959, ApJ, 129, 243 Schödel, R., Najarro, F., Muzic, K., & Eckart, A. 2010, A&A, 511, A18 Schödel, R., Nogueras-Lara, F., Hosek, M., et al. 2023, A&A, 672, L8 Schödel, R., Yelda, S., Ghez, A., et al. 2013, MNRAS, 429, 1367 Schönrich, R., Aumer, M., & Sale, S. E. 2015, ApJ, 812, L21

    work page 1959

  64. [64]

    K., Nandakumar, G., et al

    Schultheis, M., Fritz, T. K., Nandakumar, G., et al. 2021, A&A, 650, A191

    work page 2021

  65. [65]

    C., & Gadotti, D

    Schultheis, M., Sormani, M. C., & Gadotti, D. A. 2025, A&A Rev., 33, 7

    work page 2025

  66. [66]

    2011, The Messenger, 144, 9

    Siebenmorgen, R., Carraro, G., Valenti, E., et al. 2011, The Messenger, 144, 9

    work page 2011

  67. [67]

    T., Belokurov, V ., Irwin, M., et al

    Simion, I. T., Belokurov, V ., Irwin, M., et al. 2017, MNRAS, 471, 4323

    work page 2017

  68. [68]

    F., Cutri, R

    Skrutskie, M. F., Cutri, R. M., Stiening, R., et al. 2006, AJ, 131, 1163

    work page 2006

  69. [69]

    C., Lucas, P

    Smith, L. C., Lucas, P. W., Koposov, S. E., et al. 2025, MNRAS, 536, 3707

    work page 2025

  70. [70]

    C., Sanders, J

    Sormani, M. C., Sanders, J. L., Fritz, T. K., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 512, 1857

    work page 2022

  71. [71]

    Z., Mateo, M., Udalski, A., et al

    Stanek, K. Z., Mateo, M., Udalski, A., et al. 1994, ApJ, 429, L73

    work page 1994

  72. [72]

    Z., Udalski, A., Szyma ´Nski, M., et al

    Stanek, K. Z., Udalski, A., Szyma ´Nski, M., et al. 1997, ApJ, 477, 163

    work page 1997

  73. [73]

    Stetson, P. B. 1987, PASP, 99, 191

    work page 1987

  74. [74]

    Stetson, P. B. 1994, PASP, 106, 250

    work page 1994

  75. [75]

    2015, A&A, 578, A4

    Stolte, A., Hußmann, B., Olczak, C., et al. 2015, A&A, 578, A4

    work page 2015

  76. [76]

    A., et al

    Surot, F., Valenti, E., Gonzalez, O. A., et al. 2020, A&A, 644, A140

    work page 2020

  77. [77]

    2017, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:1707.02160

    Taylor, M. 2017, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:1707.02160

    work page arXiv 2017

  78. [78]

    2021, The Messenger, 182, 7

    Thatte, N., Tecza, M., Schnetler, H., et al. 2021, The Messenger, 182, 7

    work page 2021

  79. [79]

    G., Sormani, M

    Tress, R. G., Sormani, M. C., Glover, S. C. O., et al. 2020, MNRAS, 499, 4455

    work page 2020

  80. [80]

    R., & Origlia, L

    Valenti, E., Ferraro, F. R., & Origlia, L. 2004, MNRAS, 354, 815

    work page 2004

Showing first 80 references.