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arxiv: 2607.00240 · v1 · pith:7LYKYFOVnew · submitted 2026-06-30 · 🌌 astro-ph.HE

Constraining leptonic and hadronic gamma-ray emission from HESS J1825-137 and its environment

Rubens Costa Jr. , R. C. Anjos This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-07-02 17:07 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.HE
keywords gamma-ray emissionpulsar wind nebulaHESS J1825-137leptonic emissionhadronic emissionspectral modelingmodel comparison
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The pith

Baseline GeV-TeV data favor a purely leptonic model for HESS J1825-137 while simulated CTAO or LHAASO ultra-high-energy points shift preference to models with a hadronic component.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper models the broadband gamma-ray spectrum of the pulsar wind nebula HESS J1825-137 using Fermi-LAT, H.E.S.S., HAWC, and VERITAS observations from 0.1 GeV to 160 TeV. It fits the data with purely leptonic, purely hadronic, and lepto-hadronic scenarios inside the Naima radiative code and compares them via Bayesian Information Criterion after Markov Chain Monte Carlo parameter estimation. Existing measurements support only the leptonic case with an electron energy budget of 4.25 × 10^48 erg. Adding simulated future observations at energies above 100 TeV changes the statistical preference toward including proton interactions with nearby dense gas. The analysis concludes that spectral data above 10 TeV are required to identify the dominant process because Klein-Nishina suppression opens a window for hadronic emission there.

Core claim

The spectral energy distribution of HESS J1825-137 is best described by a purely leptonic model for the baseline GeV-TeV dataset, while inclusion of simulated CTAO observations or LHAASO ultra-high-energy measurements yields ΔBIC values of -28.87 and -7.89 that favor lepto-hadronic scenarios. The electron energy budget is 4.25 × 10^48 erg, consistent with prior estimates, and the proton energy budget of approximately 2.5 × 10^48 erg is energetically compatible with pp interactions in the dense molecular environment adjacent to the nebula. Precise spectral measurements above 10 TeV are essential to establish the dominant emission mechanism.

What carries the argument

The Naima radiative modeling framework with Markov Chain Monte Carlo parameter estimation and Bayesian Information Criterion comparison applied to leptonic, hadronic, and lepto-hadronic scenarios for the pulsar wind nebula emission.

If this is right

  • The electron energy budget of 4.25 × 10^48 erg matches previous literature estimates for this source.
  • The proton energy budget of approximately 2.5 × 10^48 erg is compatible with pp interactions in the adjacent dense molecular environment.
  • Precise spectral measurements above approximately 10 TeV are essential to establish the dominant emission mechanism.
  • Simulated CTAO or LHAASO data points produce clear shifts in model preference quantified by ΔBIC.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Confirmation of a hadronic component would imply that protons are being accelerated within or near the nebula and interacting with surrounding molecular gas.
  • The same modeling approach could be applied to other pulsar wind nebulae to test whether ultra-high-energy data routinely reveal hidden hadronic contributions.
  • Once real CTAO or LHAASO observations become available they can replace the simulated points and directly test the current model rankings.

Load-bearing premise

The shift toward hadronic models depends on the accuracy of the simulated CTAO and LHAASO data points together with the specific choices for gas density, target photon fields, and other environmental parameters inside the model.

What would settle it

Actual ultra-high-energy spectrum measurements from LHAASO or CTAO above 100 TeV that lack the excess predicted by the hadronic component would remove the statistical preference for models that include protons.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2607.00240 by R. C. Anjos, Rubens Costa Jr..

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: H.E.S.S. significance skymap of the region surrounding HESS J1825–137, derived from the H.E.S.S. Galactic Plane Survey (HGPS) (Abdalla et al. 2018), shown in Galactic coordinates. The background intensity scale indicates the detection significance in units of standard deviations (𝜎). The positions of multi-wavelength counterparts and neighbouring sources are overlaid: HESS J1825–137 (Collaboration et al. 2… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Spectral energy distribution of HESS J1825–137 together with the best-fit inverse Compton (IC) model obtained from the baseline dataset (Fermi-LAT, H.E.S.S., HAWC, VERITAS). The solid curve shows the total IC emission, while the contributions from the cosmic microwave background (CMB), far-infrared (FIR), near-infrared (NIR), and optical/visible (VIS) photon fields are shown with different line styles. Gam… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Spectral energy distribution of HESS J1825−137 together with the best-fit leptohadronic (LH) model with 𝜅𝑝𝑒 = 100 (solid curve), obtained from the joint fit of the Baseline dataset (Fermi-LAT, H.E.S.S., HAWC, VERITAS) augmented with the simulated 50 h CTAO South observation. Gamma-ray data from Fermi-LAT (diamond markers), H.E.S.S. (square markers), HAWC (star markers), VERITAS (triangle markers), and the … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Spectral energy distribution of HESS J1825−137 together with the best-fit purely hadronic pion-decay (PD) model obtained from the UHE-extended dataset (Baseline + LHAASO). The solid curve shows the 𝜋 0 -decay gamma-ray emission produced by 𝑝 𝑝 interactions of the relativistic proton population with the dense molecular material of mean density 𝑛H ≃ 6 × 102 cm−3 adopted from Voisin et al. (2016b). Gamma-ray … view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Difference in Bayesian Information Criterion, ΔBIC𝑚 = BIC𝑚 − BICIC, where 𝑚 denotes a given leptohadronic model, as a function of the proton-to-electron normalization ratio 𝜅𝑝𝑒 = 𝐴𝑝/𝐴𝑒 for leptohadronic mod￾els. The dashed, solid, and dash-dotted curves correspond to the Baseline, CTAO-extended, and UHE-extended datasets, respectively. Negative values of ΔBIC indicate a statistical preference for the teste… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We present a broadband spectral analysis of the $\gamma$-ray emission from the pulsar wind nebula HESS~J1825$-$137, combining observations from Fermi Large Area Telescope (\textit{Fermi}-LAT), High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.), High-Altitude Water Cherenkov Observatory (HAWC), and Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System (VERITAS) across the $\sim 0.1$~GeV--$160$~TeV energy range. The spectral energy distribution is modelled under purely leptonic, purely hadronic, and lepto-hadronic scenarios using the \textsc{Naima} radiative modeling framework with Markov Chain Monte Carlo parameter estimation. Model comparison via the Bayesian Information Criterion reveals that the baseline GeV--TeV data favour a purely leptonic interpretation, while the inclusion of simulated Cherenkov Telescope Array Observatory (CTAO) observations or Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory (LHAASO) ultra-high-energy (UHE; $E_{\gamma} \ge 100\,\mathrm{TeV}$) measurements shifts the preference toward models incorporating a hadronic component ($\Delta\mathrm{BIC} = -28.87$ and $-7.89$, respectively). The inferred electron energy budget for the baseline GeV--TeV dataset, $W_e = 4.25 \times 10^{48}$~erg, is consistent with previous estimates reported in the literature. The proton energy budget, $W_p \approx 2.5 \times 10^{48}$~erg, is energetically compatible with $pp$ interactions in the dense molecular environment adjacent to the nebula. These results demonstrate that precise spectral measurements above $\sim 10$~TeV, where Klein--Nishina suppression of inverse Compton emission creates a window for hadronic processes, are essential to establish the dominant emission mechanism in this source.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 1 minor

Summary. The manuscript performs a broadband SED analysis of the PWN HESS J1825-137 using Fermi-LAT, H.E.S.S., HAWC and VERITAS data (0.1 GeV–160 TeV). It fits purely leptonic, purely hadronic and lepto-hadronic models inside the Naima radiative code via MCMC sampling, then compares models with the Bayesian Information Criterion. The baseline GeV–TeV dataset is reported to favour the leptonic scenario, while the addition of simulated CTAO or LHAASO UHE points produces ΔBIC = −28.87 and −7.89, respectively, shifting preference toward models that include a hadronic component. Derived electron and proton energy budgets (We = 4.25 × 10^48 erg, Wp ≈ 2.5 × 10^48 erg) are stated to be consistent with prior literature and with the local molecular environment.

Significance. If the simulated CTAO/LHAASO points are generated without reference to the baseline leptonic posterior, the result would usefully illustrate the diagnostic value of UHE observations for PWNe once Klein–Nishina suppression opens a window for hadronic emission. The work employs standard, publicly available tools (Naima + MCMC + BIC) and reports energy budgets that can be directly compared with existing estimates, which strengthens its utility for the community.

major comments (2)
  1. [description of simulated CTAO/LHAASO observations] The generation of the simulated CTAO and LHAASO data points that produce the reported ΔBIC shifts is not described quantitatively (no statement of the input spectrum, target photon fields, gas density n_H, cutoff energies, or error model used inside Naima). Because these points are the sole driver of the novel claim that future UHE data favour hadronic or lepto-hadronic scenarios, the absence of this pipeline prevents assessment of circularity. This is load-bearing for the central result stated in the abstract.
  2. [model comparison and BIC results] The BIC values and ΔBIC shifts are presented without the underlying log-likelihood surfaces or the number of free parameters per model (electron vs. proton spectral indices, cutoffs, We, Wp). Without these, it is impossible to verify that the reported preference changes are not driven by differences in model complexity or prior volume.
minor comments (1)
  1. [abstract and §2] Notation for the energy budgets (We, Wp) should be defined at first use and kept consistent with the Naima documentation.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We are grateful to the referee for their insightful comments, which have helped us improve the clarity and completeness of our manuscript. Below we respond point-by-point to the major comments.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [description of simulated CTAO/LHAASO observations] The generation of the simulated CTAO and LHAASO data points that produce the reported ΔBIC shifts is not described quantitatively (no statement of the input spectrum, target photon fields, gas density n_H, cutoff energies, or error model used inside Naima). Because these points are the sole driver of the novel claim that future UHE data favour hadronic or lepto-hadronic scenarios, the absence of this pipeline prevents assessment of circularity. This is load-bearing for the central result stated in the abstract.

    Authors: We recognize that the lack of a quantitative description of the simulated CTAO and LHAASO data points limits the ability to evaluate the robustness of our conclusions regarding the preference for lepto-hadronic models with future data. In the revised manuscript, we will add a detailed description of the simulation procedure, including the input spectrum used, target photon fields, gas density n_H, cutoff energies, and the error model within Naima. This will permit a full assessment of whether the simulation is circular with respect to the baseline leptonic posterior. The points were generated to demonstrate the diagnostic capability of UHE observations in the regime where Klein-Nishina suppression allows hadronic emission to become prominent. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [model comparison and BIC results] The BIC values and ΔBIC shifts are presented without the underlying log-likelihood surfaces or the number of free parameters per model (electron vs. proton spectral indices, cutoffs, We, Wp). Without these, it is impossible to verify that the reported preference changes are not driven by differences in model complexity or prior volume.

    Authors: We agree that additional information on the model parameters and likelihoods is important for verifying the BIC results. The BIC penalizes for the number of free parameters, but we will include in the revised manuscript a table that reports the maximum log-likelihood, the number of free parameters for each model (leptonic, hadronic, and lepto-hadronic), and the BIC values for the different datasets. This will allow independent verification that the reported ΔBIC values reflect genuine improvements in fit quality rather than variations in model complexity. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; central results are direct fits to observed data

full rationale

The paper's core analysis consists of direct MCMC fits to existing Fermi-LAT, H.E.S.S., HAWC and VERITAS spectra inside the Naima framework, followed by BIC model comparison among leptonic, hadronic and lepto-hadronic scenarios. The reported preference shifts arise only when externally generated simulated CTAO or LHAASO points are added; these are forward tests, not quantities that reduce by the paper's own equations to any fitted parameter. No self-definitional relations, fitted-input-called-prediction steps, or load-bearing self-citations appear. The derivation chain is therefore self-contained against external benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

4 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on fitted spectral parameters (indices, cutoffs, normalizations) for electron and proton populations plus domain assumptions about the radiation and gas environment that are not independently measured in the abstract.

free parameters (4)
  • electron spectral parameters
    Power-law index, cutoff energy, and normalization fitted via MCMC to the broadband SED.
  • proton spectral parameters
    Power-law index, cutoff energy, and normalization for the hadronic component.
  • We
    Total electron energy budget reported as 4.25 × 10^48 erg.
  • Wp
    Total proton energy budget reported as approximately 2.5 × 10^48 erg.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Standard assumptions inside the Naima code for inverse-Compton and pp-interaction emissivities, including target photon fields and ambient gas density.
    These enter when computing the predicted spectra for each scenario.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5889 in / 1480 out tokens · 29227 ms · 2026-07-02T17:07:09.733901+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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