Pith. sign in

REVIEW 4 major objections 5 minor 137 references

A "Neutrino Fog" For Gravitational Waves: The Stochastic Gravitational Wave Background from Supernova Neutrino Memory

T0 review · 4 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-07 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗

Pith's one-line read Core-collapse supernovae are predicted to produce a stochastic gravitational-wave background from neutrino memory that peaks near 0.1 Hz at a level observable by DECIGO and BBO within a year.

desk verdict A useful first population-averaged estimate of the neutrino-memory SGWB, with a decihertz peak near Omega_GW ~1e-16 — plausible, but the claimed proximity to inflationary backgrounds depends on an extrapolation past the simulation duration. read the letter →

arxiv 2608.02747 v1 pith:DBJRLBC5 submitted 2026-08-03 astro-ph.HE astro-ph.COgr-qc

Alex Rojewski , Cecilia Lunardini This is my paper
classification astro-ph.HEastro-ph.COgr-qc
keywords stochasticgravitationalwavebackgroundsupernovaneutrinosmemorycore-collapsesupernovaedecihertzwavesDECIGOBBOneutrinofog
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper argues that the cumulative, unresolved population of core-collapse supernovae generates a stochastic gravitational-wave background whose most promising piece is the gravitational-wave memory from anisotropic neutrino emission, not the matter motion inside the exploding star. That memory component peaks at $f \sim 0.1$ Hz with $\Omega_{\rm GW}\sim 10^{-16}$, putting it within reach of planned space-based decihertz detectors: the paper estimates signal-to-noise ratios of 1.4 for DECIGO, 3.1 for an improved DECIGO, and 10.3 for BBO in one year of data. At that amplitude the supernova background is comparable to the maximum slow-roll inflationary background allowed by current CMB bounds and to some phase-transition and cosmic-string relic spectra, so searches for those cosmological signals would have to account for or subtract it. The matter component, peaking near $10^3$ Hz at $\Omega_{\rm GW}\sim 10^{-13}$, is far below the reach of ground-based detectors and is not the main story. The result reframes supernova neutrino emission as a gravitational 'neutrino fog' for future cosmological gravitational-wave searches.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is the gravitational-wave memory strain from neutrinos, $h_i(t,\Omega) = \frac{2G}{rc^4}\int_{-\infty}^{t-r/c} dt'\, L_\nu(t')\,\alpha_i(t',\Omega)$, where $L_\nu$ is the total neutrino luminosity and $\alpha_i$ is the dimensionless anisotropy parameter for each polarization. The paper adopts the phenomenological form $L_\nu(t)=\beta e^{-\chi t}$ and $\alpha_i$ as a sum of Gaussians, which yields the strain as a sum of error functions and the frequency-domain strain as $\tilde h(f)\propto \frac{1}{f}\exp(-\pi^2 f^2/\zeta_j^2)e^{2\pi i f \tau_j}$. This simple form carries the argument: the multi-second decay time sets the $\sim 0.1$ Hz peak, the $1/f$ behavior produces the $\Omega_{\rm GW}\propto f$ low-frequency tail, and the Gaussian widths control the higher-frequency structure; the population integral over redshift and progenitor mass then converts these single-supernova spectra into the stochastic background.

What would settle it

Search one year of DECIGO or BBO auto-correlation data near $f \sim 0.1$ Hz after subtracting the compact-binary foreground: a null result with sensitivity below $\Omega_{\rm GW}\sim 10^{-16}$ would rule out the fiducial supernova-memory background. Alternatively, a 3D core-collapse simulation run beyond 10 seconds post-bounce whose neutrino memory spectrum differs markedly from the exponential-plus-Gaussians fit would break the extrapolation that sets the decihertz peak.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that the stochastic gravitational-wave background from core-collapse supernovae is dominated, in its detectable band, by the neutrino memory effect: the permanent displacement left in the metric by anisotropic neutrino emission during and after the explosion. Fitting a decaying-exponential-plus-Gaussians memory model to a suite of twenty 3D multi-second core-collapse simulations and integrating over the initial mass function and a cosmic star formation history, the paper finds that the population-averaged memory component peaks at $f \sim 0.1$ Hz with $\Omega_{\rm GW}\sim 10^{-16}$, whereas the matter component peaks near $10^3$ Hz with $\Omega_{\rm GW}\sim 10^{-13}$. The decihertz peak is close to the maximum slow-roll inflationary background allowed by current CMB bounds ($\Omega_{\rm GW}\sim 3\times 10^{-16}$) and is within reach of DECIGO and BBO (one-year SNR 1.4--10.3), making the supernova memory background a credible 'neutrino fog' that future searches for primordial gravitational waves must confront. The paper also identifies a secondary peak near 1 Hz from short-timescale hydrodynamical variations in neutrino emission and a low-frequency $\Omega_{\rm GW}\propto f$ tail that is common to all models.

Load-bearing premise

The prediction assumes that the first few seconds of simulated supernova neutrino emission, extrapolated with a decaying exponential to about ten seconds, faithfully represent how the gravitational-wave memory grows; the paper states that no current simulation runs long enough to check this directly.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • If the prediction holds, a positive detection of the memory background would be a first measurement of gravitational-wave memory, a yet-unmeasured prediction of general relativity.
  • The memory background occupies its own decihertz band ($f\sim 10^{-2}$--$1$ Hz), cleanly separated from the matter component at $\sim 10^3$ Hz, so the two supernova contributions can be searched for independently.
  • At $\Omega_{\rm GW}\sim 10^{-16}$ near $0.1$ Hz, DECIGO and BBO could see the background in about one year (SNR 1.4--10.3), while ground-based Cosmic Explorer and Einstein Telescope cannot see the matter component (SNR $\sim 10^{-29}$).
  • Searches for inflationary, phase-transition, or cosmic-string backgrounds at the $10^{-16}$ level must include a supernova-neutrino-memory foreground model; the combined spectrum's minimum in the tens-of-hertz range offers a cleaner window for those cosmological searches.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Editorial inference: if the background is at the predicted level, decihertz observatories will need a two-stage subtraction pipeline, first the compact-binary foreground and then the supernova memory background, before any inflationary claim at $0.1$ Hz can stand; the second stage is only as good as the supernova anisotropy model.
  • Editorial inference: because the simulations stop after about $4.5$ seconds, the predicted peak rests on the extrapolated late cooling phase; a longer-duration 3D simulation suite that shows the memory still growing substantially after that time would shift the peak frequency down, while earlier saturation would push it up.
  • Editorial inference: the paper's orientation average uses three fixed observer directions; a full angular average over the simulated neutrino-emission anisotropy could smooth or redistribute the $0.01$--$0.1$ Hz structure, which is exactly the band where the peak sits.
  • Editorial inference: adding rotation and magnetic fields, which these simulations omit, is the natural next stress test; the authors themselves expect rotation to mildly raise the predicted signal, so the fog could be thicker than the fiducial estimate.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

4 major / 5 minor

Summary. The manuscript estimates the stochastic gravitational-wave background (SGWB) from core-collapse supernovae, emphasizing the neutrino-memory component. The authors fit a phenomenological model—an exponential neutrino luminosity decay plus a sum of up to 40 Gaussians for the emission anisotropy (Eqs. 8–13)—to the 3D BWV simulation suite [56], which extends to ~4.5 s post-bounce, and use the fits to compute single-progenitor and population-averaged spectra via Eq. (2). They find that the memory component peaks at f ~ 0.1 Hz with Omega_GW ~ 1e-16, potentially detectable by DECIGO and BBO with SNR 1.4–10.3 over one year, and comparable to the maximum allowed slow-roll inflationary background. The matter component peaks at ~1 kHz and is far below detectability. The paper concludes that the memory background may constitute a 'neutrino fog' for cosmological SGWB searches.

Significance. If the peak prediction is robust, this is an important result: it identifies a guaranteed astrophysical foreground in the decihertz band, quantifies its contribution with a state-of-the-art 3D simulation suite, and gives a concrete target for DECIGO/BBO science. The manuscript is transparent about its main limitation—no existing 3D simulations cover the full memory evolution—and it tests sensitivity to observer orientation and to the star-formation-rate model. Because the prediction is obtained by extrapolating fitted waveforms beyond the simulation window, the claimed proximity to the inflationary bound must be supported by additional robustness tests before the result can be considered secure.

major comments (4)
  1. [Sec. III A, Table I; Eq. (8); Sec. V] The central prediction rests on an extrapolation of the fitted memory waveform beyond the simulation duration. The BWV simulations used for the fits extend to at most 4.5 s post-bounce (Table I), and Sec. V states that no 3D simulation of adequate duration exists to capture the full memory evolution. Eq. (8) assumes an exponential decay valid for 'the first ~10 s or so', but the fit itself can only constrain the model within the simulation window. Because the 0.1 Hz band is sensitive to anisotropy variations on ~1 s timescales at any time during the burst (see Eq. 11), an unmodeled late-time anisotropy at t ~ 5–10 s would contribute to the same band. The BIC-based selection of N_best tests in-window goodness of fit, not the validity of the exponential-plus-Gaussian functional form after t_end. I request a quantitative robustness test: inject synthetic late-time anisotropy components (e.g., Gaussians with centers at 5–10 s and amplitudes comparable to fitted in-window components) and recompute the population-averaged Omega_GW and the SNR values in Table II, reporting the resulting spread in the 0.1 Hz peak amplitude.
  2. [Sec. III B] The domain constraint 0.01 <= zeta_j <= 100 Hz permits Gaussians with sigma ~ 70 s, whose support extends far beyond the simulation window even when their centers lie inside it. Consequently, fitted components can extrapolate asymptotic memory amplitude well past t_end, and the predicted decihertz peak may be partly an artifact of this allowed domain rather than a feature resolved in the 4.5 s of simulation. The paper should report the distribution of best-fit zeta_j (or sigma_j) values across the 20 models and both polarizations, and it should recompute the population-averaged spectrum with an upper bound on sigma tied to the simulation duration (e.g., sigma <= ~1 s or a corresponding cap on zeta_j) to show that the 0.1 Hz peak persists.
  3. [Sec. IV B, Fig. 6; Sec. V] The abstract and discussion claim that the memory background may have energy density comparable to the maximum slow-roll inflationary background (Omega_GW ~ 3e-16). Given that the peak amplitude is set by the extrapolated late-time behavior (see major comment 1), this comparison is not yet secured. The manuscript should provide either a lower bound on the memory peak obtainable from the in-window data alone (e.g., by truncating the fitted waveforms at t_end) or an explicit uncertainty band on the curve in Fig. 6 that includes the late-time extrapolation uncertainty, before concluding that the SN-SGWB can affect inflationary searches.
  4. [Sec. V] The paper says the estimate for the neutrino memory component 'may be considered conservative'. This directional claim is not supported by the analysis: unmodeled late-time anisotropy can either increase or decrease the net memory strain, and the absence of rotation (which the paper expects to enhance the signal) also introduces a one-sided bias. The word 'conservative' should be removed or substantiated with a one-sided robustness test.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Sec. I (Introduction), Sec. III] The organization paragraph states 'In section I, we introduce the numerical simulations adopted here', but the simulations and fits are presented in Section III; please correct the cross-reference.
  2. [Abstract and throughout] The phrase 'space-born' should be 'space-borne' (e.g., in the abstract and the introduction).
  3. [Sec. IV C] There is a typographical artifact '˙These' before 'These competing signals'; please fix the punctuation.
  4. [Sec. II C, Eq. (14)] Equation (14) appears to contain a typographical error in the exponential factor of the high-frequency term; it should likely be e^{-f_s/b} rather than the garbled 'e^{-fe b}', and the bracket structure should be checked.
  5. [Sec. II B] The term 'wl4GNZ model' is introduced without a definition or reference; please clarify what this model is and how Eq. (8)–(9) relate to Ref. [51].

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 2.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the SGWB is a forward integral over externally simulated BWV waveforms; the one self-citation for the phenomenological model is not load-bearing.

full rationale

The central chain is a forward calculation: memory strain waveforms from the external 3D BWV simulations (Ref. [56]) are fit to the exponential-plus-Gaussians model (Eqs. 8-13), and the SGWB is obtained by inserting the resulting dE/df_s into the redshift integral (Eqs. 2, 6, 16). The predicted peak at f ~ 0.1 Hz is a Fourier-domain property of the fitted multi-second waveforms, not a quantity that was used to define the fits; no parameter is fitted to the SGWB itself or to the inflationary comparison curve. The only self-citation is Ref. [51] (Mukhopadhyay, Cardona, Lunardini), which supplies the phenomenological model, but the model parameters are re-fit to external simulation data, so the citation is not load-bearing. The paper also states the relevant limitation honestly: "no 3D core-collapse supernova simulations exist that are of adequate duration to capture the full evolution of the neutrino memory signal" (Sec. V), and acknowledges in Sec. IV A that incomplete capturing of the multi-second evolution introduces "an irreducible uncertainty into the fits." These are extrapolation and modeling uncertainties, not circular reductions. The comparison to the inflationary SGWB uses an external maximum-allowed curve (Ref. [21]) and is explicitly presented as a potential confusion, not as a derived consequence. I therefore find no significant circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 5 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The calculation is built on standard SGWB formalism plus a chain of model assumptions. The free parameters are the many fitted coefficients of the phenomenological memory and matter models, none of which are tabulated. The axioms are the fidelity of the BWV simulations, the IMF and SFR inputs, and the standard cosmology.

free parameters (5)
  • Neutrino memory fit parameters (beta, chi, xi_j, gamma_j, sigma_j, N_best)
    Fitted to BWV simulation strain waveforms via least squares and BIC; values are not tabulated in the paper.
  • Matter fit parameters (A', B', mu1, mu2, omega1, omega2, a, b, e, f)
    Fitted to matter spectra in log space for each model; values are not listed.
  • zeta_j domain bounds = 0.01 to 100 Hz
    Chosen by hand to exclude numerical jitter and overly slow features (Section III B).
  • N_max (maximum Gaussian count) = 40
    Chosen for computational reasons in the BIC model selection (Section III B).
  • lambda_CC = 0.007 per solar mass
    Mass fraction of stars undergoing core collapse, estimated from the Salpeter IMF for M >= 8 solar masses (Section II).
assumptions (6)
  • standard math The stochastic background integral (Eq. 2) correctly converts single-source spectra into Omega_GW for a cosmological population.
    Standard Phinney/Allen formalism used throughout the SGWB literature.
  • domain assumption The memory strain is described by Eq. (7) with an exponentially decaying neutrino luminosity (Eq. 8) and a sum-of-Gaussians anisotropy (Eq. 9).
    This is the wl4GNZ-inspired model from the authors' prior work (Ref. [51]); it presumes the functional forms capture the relevant physics over the full emission time.
  • domain assumption The BWV simulations (Ref. [56]) accurately represent neutrino emission and matter dynamics in core-collapse supernovae.
    All waveforms are taken from these simulations, so any systematic error in the simulation code or input physics propagates directly into the predicted backgrounds.
  • domain assumption The Salpeter IMF with a progenitor mass range 8-100 solar masses and lambda_CC = 0.007 per solar mass describes the cosmic core-collapse supernova population.
    Used in Eqs. (16)-(17) to weight the discrete waveform models.
  • domain assumption The cosmic star formation rate of Eq. (5) with parameters from Ref. [70] (nu=0.178, p=2.37, q=1.80, z_m=2.00) is correct at high redshift.
    Sets the redshift distribution of supernova events; Appendix A tests alternative SFR models and finds O(1) changes.
  • standard math A flat Lambda-CDM cosmology with Planck 2018 parameters (Omega_m=0.3111, Omega_Lambda=0.6889, H0=67.66 km/s/Mpc) applies.
    Standard cosmological parameters used in Eqs. (2)-(3).

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of A "Neutrino Fog" For Gravitational Waves: The Stochastic Gravitational Wave Background from Supernova Neutrino Memory." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/DBJRLBC5

@misc{pith2026260802747,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: A "Neutrino Fog" For Gravitational Waves: The Stochastic Gravitational Wave Background from Supernova Neutrino Memory},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/DBJRLBC5}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2608.02747}
}
abstract

Gravitational waves originating from unresolved sources, or stochastic gravitational wave backgrounds (SGWBs), carry precious information about the physics underlying their diverse sources, and represent an important target for future experimental searches. Here, we model the SGWB due to core collapse supernovae. Using an extensive collection of state-of-the-art, three-dimensional, multi-second supernova simulations, we characterize the two main components of this background: one at $f \sim 10^{-2} - 1$ Hz, due to anisotropic neutrino emission (the gravitational wave memory); the other at $f \gtrsim 10^{2}$ Hz, from the near-core matter dynamics. We find that the memory component offers the best prospects of detection, as its characteristic peak at $f\sim 0.1$ Hz is within the reach of future space-born detectors. At the peak, the energy density might be comparable to that of backgrounds from slow roll inflation and from possible cosmological relics, thus potentially impacting searches of these important signals.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2608.02747 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. FIG. 1. Fits to memory strain profiles, for the plus mode, for representative progenitor models. The dimensionless strain has [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. FIG. 2. Fits to memory strain profiles, for the cross mode, for representative progenitor models. The same y-axis scaling [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. FIG. 3. Representative fits to the matter spectra. The dark blue line represents the natural logarithm of the matter contribution [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_3.png] view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (6 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: FIG. 4. Single-progenitor dimensionless energy densities for the neutrino memory component of the SN-SGWB, as a function [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_4.png]
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: FIG. 5. Single-progenitor dimensionless energy densities for the matter component of the SN-SGWB, as a function of frequency, [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_5.png]
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: FIG. 6. Gravitational wave energy density of the SN-SGWB. The memory and matter contributions are shown separately, see [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_6.png]
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: FIG. 7. Single-progenitor dimensionless energy densities for the neutrino memory component of the SN-SGWB, as a function [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_7.png]
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: FIG. 8. Single-progenitor dimensionless energy densities for the neutrino memory component of the SN-SGWB, as a function [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_8.png]
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: FIG. 9. Gravitational wave energy density of the total SN-SGWB for the x-, y-, and z-direction source orientations and source [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_9.png]

Discussion (0). Sign in to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

137 extracted references · 14 canonical work pages

  1. [56]

    V. B. Braginsky and K. S. Thorne, Gravitational-wave bursts with memory and experimental prospects, Na- ture327, 123 (1987)

    1987

  2. [1]

    This feature is due to the well known low frequency limit of the memory waveform, ˜h∝ 1/fforf→0 (see Eq

    the presence of a low-frequency tail of power-law form, Ω GW ∝f, which is common to all models atf≲10 −3 Hz(extending to higher frequency for some models). This feature is due to the well known low frequency limit of the memory waveform, ˜h∝ 1/fforf→0 (see Eq. (11)), which corresponds to dE/d fs (Eq. (6)) tending to a constant; we refer to, e.g. [28, 48, ...

  3. [2]

    We observe a large degree of heterogeneity among models in the amplitude and width of this feature, and that several mod- els exhibit multiple peaks in thef∼0.01−0.1 Hz range

    A decihertz (f∼0.1 Hz) peak, which is expected considering the multi-second time scale evolution of the memory waveform (τ∼ O(10) s, leading to f∼1/τ∼ O(10 −1) Hz). We observe a large degree of heterogeneity among models in the amplitude and width of this feature, and that several mod- els exhibit multiple peaks in thef∼0.01−0.1 Hz range. The high degree ...

  4. [3]

    A second, lower-amplitude peak in thef∼1−10 Hz band. This peak is present across all progeni- tors, and may reflect the fast variations (timescale τ∼ O(1−10) ms) of the neutrino luminosities and emission anisotropies due to hydrodynamical instabilities [51, 77, 93], such as strong post-shock convection and asymmetric accretion onto the PNS 8 FIG. 4. Singl...

  5. [4]

    This trend is expected, considering that the memory effect is inherently a low-frequency phenomenon

    A fast drop-off of Ω GW atf≳10 Hz. This trend is expected, considering that the memory effect is inherently a low-frequency phenomenon. It may partially enhanced by our fitting procedure (Sec- tion III B), where high-frequency features beyond a threshold were deliberately excluded. We antic- ipate that, in this high frequency region, the total SN-SGWB is ...

  6. [5]

    All models exhibit a peak atO 103 Hz, which is nat- ural because this is the characteristic frequency of PNS oscillation modes

    Similar to the memory portion, the matter compo- nent from each model shows substantial heterogeneity. All models exhibit a peak atO 103 Hz, which is nat- ural because this is the characteristic frequency of PNS oscillation modes. There is a general trend of increasing 9 FIG. 5. Single-progenitor dimensionless energy densities for the matter component of ...

  7. [6]

    neu- trino fog

    Fiducial Model We now generalize the SN-SGWB calculation in Eq. (2) by including the waveform dependence on the progen- itor mass,M, and integrating over the stellar population 10 FIG. 6. Gravitational wave energy density of the SN-SGWB. The memory and matter contributions are shown separately, see legend. Five relevant detector power-law integrated sensi...

  8. [7]

    B. P. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), Obser- vation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger, Phys. Rev. Lett.116, 061102 (2016), arXiv:1602.03837 [gr-qc]

    arXiv 2016

Show all 137 references
  1. [8]

    B. P. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), GW170817: Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Neu- tron Star Inspiral, Phys. Rev. Lett.119, 161101 (2017), arXiv:1710.05832 [gr-qc]. 16 FIG. 9. Gravitational wave energy density of the total SN-SGWB for the x-, y-, and z...

    2017 arXiv

  2. [9]

    B. P. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), GW190425: Observation of a Compact Binary Coalescence with To- tal Mass∼3.4M ⊙, Astrophys. J. Lett.892, L3 (2020), arXiv:2001.01761 [astro-ph.HE]

    2020 arXiv

  3. [10]

    Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), GW190521: A Binary Black Hole Merger with a Total Mass of 150M⊙, Phys

    R. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), GW190521: A Binary Black Hole Merger with a Total Mass of 150M⊙, Phys. Rev. Lett.125, 101102 (2020), arXiv:2009.01075 [gr-qc]

    2020

  4. [11]

    Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), GWTC-2: Compact Binary Coalescences Observed by LIGO and Virgo During the First Half of the Third Observing Run, Phys

    R. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), GWTC-2: Compact Binary Coalescences Observed by LIGO and Virgo During the First Half of the Third Observing Run, Phys. Rev. X11, 021053 (2021), arXiv:2010.14527 [gr- qc]

    2021 arXiv

  5. [12]

    Abbottet al.(KAGRA, VIRGO, LIGO Scientific), GWTC-3: Compact Binary Coalescences Observed by LIGO and Virgo during the Second Part of the Third Observing Run, Phys

    R. Abbottet al.(KAGRA, VIRGO, LIGO Scientific), GWTC-3: Compact Binary Coalescences Observed by LIGO and Virgo during the Second Part of the Third Observing Run, Phys. Rev. X13, 041039 (2023), arXiv:2111.03606 [gr-qc]

    2023 arXiv

  6. [13]

    Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, KAGRA, VIRGO), Observation of Gravitational Waves from Two Neutron Star–Black Hole Coalescences, Astrophys

    R. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, KAGRA, VIRGO), Observation of Gravitational Waves from Two Neutron Star–Black Hole Coalescences, Astrophys. J. Lett.915, L5 (2021), arXiv:2106.15163 [astro-ph.HE]

    2021 arXiv

  7. [14]

    A. G. Abacet al.(LIGO Scientific, VIRGO, KAGRA), GW231123: A Binary Black Hole Merger with Total Mass 190–265 M⊙, Astrophys. J. Lett.993, L25 (2025), arXiv:2507.08219 [astro-ph.HE]

    2025 arXiv

  8. [15]

    Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), Tests of gen- eral relativity with binary black holes from the second LIGO-Virgo gravitational-wave transient catalog, Phys

    R. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), Tests of gen- eral relativity with binary black holes from the second LIGO-Virgo gravitational-wave transient catalog, Phys. Rev. D103, 122002 (2021), arXiv:2010.14529 [gr-qc]

    2021 arXiv

  9. [16]

    A. G. Abacet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo, KAGRA), GW250114: Testing Hawking’s Area Law and the Kerr Nature of Black Holes, Phys. Rev. Lett.135, 111403 (2025), arXiv:2509.08054 [gr-qc]

    2025 arXiv

  10. [17]

    A. G. Abacet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo, KAGRA), Black Hole Spectroscopy and Tests of General Relativity with GW250114, Phys. Rev. Lett.136, 041403 (2026), arXiv:2509.08099 [gr-qc]

    2026 arXiv

  11. [18]

    Tonget al., Evidence of the pair-instability gap from black-hole masses, Nature652, 874 (2026), arXiv:2509.04151 [astro-ph.HE]

    H. Tonget al., Evidence of the pair-instability gap from black-hole masses, Nature652, 874 (2026), arXiv:2509.04151 [astro-ph.HE]

    2026 arXiv

  12. [19]

    P. F. Michelson, On detecting stochastic background gravitational radiation with terrestrial detectors, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.227, 933 (1987)

    1987

  13. [20]

    Christensen, Measuring the stochastic gravitational- radiation background with laser-interferometric anten- nas, Phys

    N. Christensen, Measuring the stochastic gravitational- radiation background with laser-interferometric anten- nas, Phys. Rev. D46, 5250 (1992)

    1992

  14. [21]

    E. E. Flanagan, Sensitivity of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory to a stochastic back- ground, and its dependence on the detector orientations, Phys. Rev. D48, 2389 (1993)

    1993

  15. [22]

    Allen and J

    B. Allen and J. D. Romano, Detecting a stochastic background of gravitational radiation: Signal process- ing strategies and sensitivities, Phys. Rev. D59, 102001 (1999), arXiv:gr-qc/9710117

    1999 arXiv

  16. [23]

    Regimbau and V

    T. Regimbau and V. Mandic, Astrophysical Sources of Stochastic Gravitational-Wave Background, Class. Quant. Grav.25, 184018 (2008), arXiv:0806.2794 [astro- ph]

    2008 arXiv

  17. [24]

    Regimbau, The astrophysical gravitational wave stochastic background, Res

    T. Regimbau, The astrophysical gravitational wave stochastic background, Res. Astron. Astrophys.11, 369 (2011), arXiv:1101.2762 [astro-ph.CO]

    2011 arXiv

  18. [25]

    Christensen, Stochastic Gravitational Wave Back- grounds, Rept

    N. Christensen, Stochastic Gravitational Wave Back- grounds, Rept. Prog. Phys.82, 016903 (2019), arXiv:1811.08797 [gr-qc]

    2019 arXiv

  19. [26]

    Caprini and D

    C. Caprini and D. G. Figueroa, Cosmological Back- grounds of Gravitational Waves, Class. Quant. Grav. 35, 163001 (2018), arXiv:1801.04268 [astro-ph.CO]

    2018 arXiv

  20. [27]

    A. I. Renzini, B. Goncharov, A. C. Jenkins, and P. M. Meyers, Stochastic Gravitational-Wave Backgrounds: 17 Current Detection Efforts and Future Prospects, Galax- ies10, 34 (2022), arXiv:2202.00178 [gr-qc]

    2022 arXiv

  21. [28]

    B. P. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), GW150914: Implications for the stochastic gravitational wave back- ground from binary black holes, Phys. Rev. Lett.116, 131102 (2016), arXiv:1602.03847 [gr-qc]

    2016 arXiv

  22. [29]

    Abbottet al.(KAGRA, Virgo, LIGO Scientific), Upper limits on the isotropic gravitational-wave back- ground from Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo’s third observing run, Phys

    R. Abbottet al.(KAGRA, Virgo, LIGO Scientific), Upper limits on the isotropic gravitational-wave back- ground from Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo’s third observing run, Phys. Rev. D104, 022004 (2021), arXiv:2101.12130 [gr-qc]

    2021

  23. [30]

    Agazieet al.(NANOGrav), The NANOGrav 15 yr Data Set: Evidence for a Gravitational-wave Background, Astrophys

    G. Agazieet al.(NANOGrav), The NANOGrav 15 yr Data Set: Evidence for a Gravitational-wave Background, Astrophys. J. Lett.951, L8 (2023), arXiv:2306.16213 [astro-ph.HE]

    2023 arXiv

  24. [31]

    Antoniadiset al.(EPTA, InPTA:), The second data release from the European Pulsar Timing Array - III

    J. Antoniadiset al.(EPTA, InPTA:), The second data release from the European Pulsar Timing Array - III. Search for gravitational wave signals, Astron. Astro- phys.678, A50 (2023), arXiv:2306.16214 [astro-ph.HE]

    2023 arXiv

  25. [32]

    D. J. Reardonet al., Search for an Isotropic Gravitational-wave Background with the Parkes Pul- sar Timing Array, Astrophys. J. Lett.951, L6 (2023), arXiv:2306.16215 [astro-ph.HE]

    2023 arXiv

  26. [33]

    Xuet al., Searching for the Nano-Hertz Stochas- tic Gravitational Wave Background with the Chinese Pulsar Timing Array Data Release I, Res

    H. Xuet al., Searching for the Nano-Hertz Stochas- tic Gravitational Wave Background with the Chinese Pulsar Timing Array Data Release I, Res. Astron. As- trophys.23, 075024 (2023), arXiv:2306.16216 [astro- ph.HE]

    2023 arXiv

  27. [34]

    Buonanno, G

    A. Buonanno, G. Sigl, G. G. Raffelt, H.-T. Janka, and E. Muller, Stochastic gravitational wave background from cosmological supernovae, Phys. Rev. D72, 084001 (2005), arXiv:astro-ph/0412277

    2005 arXiv

  28. [35]

    Crocker, T

    K. Crocker, T. Prestegard, V. Mandic, T. Regimbau, K. Olive, and E. Vangioni, Systematic study of the stochastic gravitational-wave background due to stel- lar core collapse, Phys. Rev. D95, 063015 (2017), arXiv:1701.02638 [astro-ph.CO]

    2017 arXiv

  29. [36]

    Finkel, H

    B. Finkel, H. Andresen, and V. Mandic, Stochas- tic gravitational-wave background from stellar core- collapse events, Phys. Rev. D105, 063022 (2022), arXiv:2110.01478 [gr-qc]

    2022 arXiv

  30. [37]

    Marassi, R

    S. Marassi, R. Ciolfi, R. Schneider, L. Stella, and V. Fer- rari, Stochastic background of gravitational waves emit- ted by magnetars, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.411, 2549 (2011), arXiv:1009.1240 [astro-ph.CO]

    2011 arXiv

  31. [38]

    B. J. Owen, L. Lindblom, C. Cutler, B. F. Schutz, A. Vecchio, and N. Andersson, Gravitational waves from hot young rapidly rotating neutron stars, Phys. Rev. D 58, 084020 (1998), arXiv:gr-qc/9804044

    1998 arXiv

  32. [39]

    P. A. Rosado, Gravitational wave background from ro- tating neutron stars, Phys. Rev. D86, 104007 (2012), arXiv:1206.1330 [gr-qc]

    2012 arXiv

  33. [40]

    Cheng, S.-N

    Q. Cheng, S.-N. Zhang, and X.-P. Zheng, Stochastic gravitational wave background from newly born mas- sive magnetars: The role of a dense matter equation of state, Phys. Rev. D95, 083003 (2017), arXiv:1704.02013 [astro-ph.HE]

    2017 arXiv

  34. [41]

    Auclairet al.(LISA Cosmology Working Group), Cosmology with the Laser Interferometer Space An- tenna, Living Rev

    P. Auclairet al.(LISA Cosmology Working Group), Cosmology with the Laser Interferometer Space An- tenna, Living Rev. Rel.26, 5 (2023), arXiv:2204.05434 [astro-ph.CO]

    2023 arXiv

  35. [42]

    M. C. Guzzetti, N. Bartolo, M. Liguori, and S. Matar- rese, Gravitational waves from inflation, Riv. Nuovo Cim.39, 399 (2016), arXiv:1605.01615 [astro-ph.CO]

    2016 arXiv

  36. [43]

    Barnaby, E

    N. Barnaby, E. Pajer, and M. Peloso, Gauge Field Production in Axion Inflation: Consequences for Mon- odromy, non-Gaussianity in the CMB, and Gravita- tional Waves at Interferometers, Phys. Rev. D85, 023525 (2012), arXiv:1110.3327 [astro-ph.CO]

    2012 arXiv

  37. [44]

    M. S. Turner, Detectability of inflation produced gravitational waves, Phys. Rev. D55, R435 (1997), arXiv:astro-ph/9607066

    1997 arXiv

  38. [45]

    Bartoloet al., Science with the space-based interfer- ometer LISA

    N. Bartoloet al., Science with the space-based interfer- ometer LISA. IV: Probing inflation with gravitational waves, JCAP12, 026, arXiv:1610.06481 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv

  39. [46]

    J. J. Blanco-Pillado, K. D. Olum, and X. Siemens, New limits on cosmic strings from gravitational wave obser- vation, Phys. Lett. B778, 392 (2018), arXiv:1709.02434 [astro-ph.CO]

    2018 arXiv

  40. [47]

    Auclairet al., Probing the gravitational wave back- ground from cosmic strings with LISA, JCAP04, 034, arXiv:1909.00819 [astro-ph.CO]

    P. Auclairet al., Probing the gravitational wave back- ground from cosmic strings with LISA, JCAP04, 034, arXiv:1909.00819 [astro-ph.CO]

    1909 arXiv

  41. [48]

    Avgoustidis, E

    A. Avgoustidis, E. J. Copeland, A. Moss, and J. Raidal, The stochastic gravitational wave background from cosmic superstrings, JCAP07, 091, arXiv:2503.10361 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv

  42. [49]

    Capriniet al., Science with the space-based interfer- ometer eLISA

    C. Capriniet al., Science with the space-based interfer- ometer eLISA. II: Gravitational waves from cosmologi- cal phase transitions, JCAP04, 001, arXiv:1512.06239 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv

  43. [50]

    Schmitz, New Sensitivity Curves for Gravitational- Wave Signals from Cosmological Phase Transitions, JHEP01, 097, arXiv:2002.04615 [hep-ph]

    K. Schmitz, New Sensitivity Curves for Gravitational- Wave Signals from Cosmological Phase Transitions, JHEP01, 097, arXiv:2002.04615 [hep-ph]

    2002 arXiv

  44. [51]

    Croon and D

    D. Croon and D. J. Weir, Gravitational Waves from Phase Transitions, Contemp. Phys.65, 75 (2024), arXiv:2410.21509 [hep-ph]

    2024

  45. [52]

    A. G. Abacet al.(LIGO Scientific, VIRGO, KA- GRA), Cosmological and High Energy Physics impli- cations from gravitational-wave background searches in LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA’s O1-O4a runs, (2025), arXiv:2510.26848 [gr-qc]

    2025

  46. [53]

    Y. B. Zel’dovich and A. G. Polnarev, Radiation of grav- itational waves by a cluster of superdense stars, Sov. Astron.18, 17 (1974)

    1974

  47. [54]

    M. S. Turner, Gravitational Radiation from Supernova Neutrino Bursts, Nature274, 565 (1978)

    1978

  48. [55]

    Epstein, The Generation of Gravitational Radiation by Escaping Supernova Neutrinos, Astrophys

    R. Epstein, The Generation of Gravitational Radiation by Escaping Supernova Neutrinos, Astrophys. J.223, 1037 (1978)

    1978

  49. [57]

    Mukhopadhyay, C

    M. Mukhopadhyay, C. Cardona, and C. Lunardini, The neutrino gravitational memory from a core collapse su- pernova: phenomenology and physics potential, JCAP 07, 055, arXiv:2105.05862 [astro-ph.HE]

    arXiv

  50. [58]

    S. R. Chowdhury and M. Khlopov, Stochastic gravi- tational wave background due to core collapse result- ing in neutron stars, Phys. Rev. D110, 063037 (2024), arXiv:2409.01542 [gr-qc]

    2024 arXiv

  51. [59]

    Evanset al., Cosmic Explorer: A Submission to the NSF MPSAC ngGW Subcommittee, (2023), arXiv:2306.13745 [astro-ph.IM]

    M. Evanset al., Cosmic Explorer: A Submission to the NSF MPSAC ngGW Subcommittee, (2023), arXiv:2306.13745 [astro-ph.IM]

    2023 arXiv

  52. [60]

    Abacet al.(ET), The Science of the Einstein Tele- scope, JCAP03, 081, arXiv:2503.12263 [gr-qc]

    A. Abacet al.(ET), The Science of the Einstein Tele- scope, JCAP03, 081, arXiv:2503.12263 [gr-qc]

    arXiv

  53. [61]

    Bollig, N

    R. Bollig, N. Yadav, D. Kresse, H. T. Janka, B. M¨ uller, and A. Heger, Self-consistent 3D Supernova Models From−7 Minutes to +7 s: A 1-bethe Explosion of 18 a∼19M ⊙ Progenitor, Astrophys. J.915, 28 (2021), arXiv:2010.10506 [astro-ph.HE]

    2021

  54. [62]

    Burrows, T

    A. Burrows, T. Wang, and D. Vartanyan, Physical Cor- relations and Predictions Emerging from Modern Core- collapse Supernova Theory, Astrophys. J. Lett.964, L16 (2024), arXiv:2401.06840 [astro-ph.HE]

    2024 arXiv

  55. [63]

    L. Choi, A. Burrows, and D. Vartanyan, Gravitational- wave and Gravitational-wave Memory Signatures of Core-collapse Supernovae, Astrophys. J.975, 12 (2024), [Erratum: Astrophys.J. 985, 268 (2025)], arXiv:2408.01525 [astro-ph.HE]

    2024 arXiv

  56. [64]

    L. Choi, A. Burrows, and D. Vartanyan, Predicted neu- trino signal features of core-collapse supernovae, Phys. Rev. D111, 123038 (2025), arXiv:2503.07531 [astro- ph.HE]

    2025 arXiv

  57. [65]

    Lella, G

    A. Lella, G. Lucente, D. Kresse, R. Glas, H.-T. Janka, and A. Mirizzi, Gravitational-wave signals for supernova explosions of three-dimensional progenitors, Phys. Rev. D113, 083034 (2026), arXiv:2602.02651 [astro-ph.HE]

    2026

  58. [66]

    Shibagaki, T

    S. Shibagaki, T. Kuroda, K. Kotake, T. Takiwaki, and T. Fischer, Three-dimensional GRMHD simulations of rapidly rotating stellar core collapse, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.531, 3732 (2024), arXiv:2309.05161 [astro- ph.HE]

    2024 arXiv

  59. [67]

    Nakamura, T

    K. Nakamura, T. Takiwaki, J. Matsumoto, and K. Ko- take, Three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic simu- lations of core-collapse supernovae – I. Hydrodynamic evolution and protoneutron star properties, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.536, 280 (2024), arXiv:2405.08367 [astro-ph.HE]

    2024 arXiv

  60. [68]

    Sykes and B

    B. Sykes and B. M¨ uller, Long-time 3D supernova simu- lations of nonrotating progenitors with magnetic fields, Phys. Rev. D111, 063042 (2025), arXiv:2412.01155 [astro-ph.HE]

    2025 arXiv

  61. [69]

    Powell and B

    J. Powell and B. M¨ uller, The gravitational-wave emis- sion from the explosion of a 15 solar mass star with rotation and magnetic fields, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.532, 4326 (2024), arXiv:2406.09691 [astro-ph.HE]

    2024 arXiv

  62. [70]

    Vartanyan and A

    D. Vartanyan and A. Burrows, Gravitational Waves from Neutrino Emission Asymmetries in Core- collapse Supernovae, Astrophys. J.901, 108 (2020), arXiv:2007.07261 [astro-ph.HE]

    2020 arXiv

  63. [71]

    C. J. Richardson, M. Zanolin, H. Andresen, M. J. Szczepa´ nczyk, K. Gill, and A. Wongwathanarat, Model- ing core-collapse supernovae gravitational-wave memory in laser interferometric data, Phys. Rev. D105, 103008 (2022), arXiv:2109.01582 [astro-ph.HE]

    2022 arXiv

  64. [72]

    E. S. Phinney, A Practical theorem on gravitational wave backgrounds, (2001), arXiv:astro-ph/0108028

    2001 arXiv

  65. [73]

    R. S. Klessen and S. C. O. Glover, The First Stars: For- mation, Properties, and Impact, Ann. Rev. Astron. As- trophys.61, 65 (2023), arXiv:2303.12500 [astro-ph.CO]

    2023 arXiv

  66. [74]

    Aghanimet al.(Planck), Planck 2018 results

    N. Aghanimet al.(Planck), Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters, Astron. Astrophys.641, A6 (2020), [Erratum: Astron.Astrophys. 652, C4 (2021)], arXiv:1807.06209 [astro-ph.CO]

    2020 arXiv

  67. [75]

    Hernquist and V

    L. Hernquist and V. Springel, An analytical model for the history of cosmic star formation, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.341, 1253 (2003), arXiv:astro-ph/0209183

    2003 arXiv

  68. [76]

    Vangioni, K

    E. Vangioni, K. A. Olive, T. Prestegard, J. Silk, P. Petit- jean, and V. Mandic, The Impact of Star Formation and Gamma-Ray Burst Rates at High Redshift on Cosmic Chemical Evolution and Reionization, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.447, 2575 (2015), arXiv:1409.2462 [astro- ph.GA]

    2015 arXiv

  69. [77]

    K. S. Thorne, Gravitational-wave bursts with memory: The Christodoulou effect, Phys. Rev. D45, 520 (1992)

    1992

  70. [78]

    Blanchet and T

    L. Blanchet and T. Damour, Hereditary effects in grav- itational radiation, Phys. Rev. D46, 4304 (1992)

    1992

  71. [79]

    Favata, The gravitational-wave memory effect, Class

    M. Favata, The gravitational-wave memory effect, Class. Quant. Grav.27, 084036 (2010), arXiv:1003.3486 [gr-qc]

    2010 arXiv

  72. [80]

    Radice, V

    D. Radice, V. Morozova, A. Burrows, D. Vartanyan, and H. Nagakura, Characterizing the Gravitational Wave Signal from Core-Collapse Supernovae, Astrophys. J. Lett.876, L9 (2019), arXiv:1812.07703 [astro-ph.HE]

    2019 arXiv

  73. [81]

    Szczepanczyket al., Detecting and reconstructing gravitational waves from the next galactic core-collapse supernova in the advanced detector era, Phys

    M. Szczepanczyket al., Detecting and reconstructing gravitational waves from the next galactic core-collapse supernova in the advanced detector era, Phys. Rev. D 104, 102002 (2021), arXiv:2104.06462 [astro-ph.HE]

    2021 arXiv

  74. [82]

    Vartanyan, A

    D. Vartanyan, A. Burrows, T. Wang, M. S. B. Coleman, and C. J. White, Gravitational-wave signature of core- collapse supernovae, Phys. Rev. D107, 103015 (2023), arXiv:2302.07092 [astro-ph.HE]

    2023 arXiv

  75. [83]

    M¨ uller, Core-collapse supernovae and their grav- itational wave signals: the status of theory and modeling, Class

    B. M¨ uller, Core-collapse supernovae and their grav- itational wave signals: the status of theory and modeling, Class. Quant. Grav.43, 143001 (2026), arXiv:2603.24243 [astro-ph.HE]

    2026 arXiv

  76. [84]

    J. M. Blondin, A. Mezzacappa, and C. DeMarino, Sta- bility of standing accretion shocks, with an eye toward core collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J.584, 971 (2003), arXiv:astro-ph/0210634

    2003 arXiv

  77. [85]

    Fernandez, The Spiral Modes of the Standing Accre- tion Shock Instability, Astrophys

    R. Fernandez, The Spiral Modes of the Standing Accre- tion Shock Instability, Astrophys. J.725, 1563 (2010), arXiv:1003.1730 [astro-ph.SR]

    2010 arXiv

  78. [86]

    Aizenman, P

    M. Aizenman, P. Smeyers, and A. Weigert, Avoided Crossing of Modes of Non-radial Stellar Oscillations, As- tron. Astrophys.58, 41 (1977)

    1977

  79. [87]

    Sotani and T

    H. Sotani and T. Takiwaki, Avoided crossing in gravita- tional wave spectra from protoneutron star, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.498, 3503 (2020), arXiv:2008.00419 [astro-ph.HE]

    2020 arXiv

  80. [88]

    Sukhbold, T

    T. Sukhbold, T. Ertl, S. E. Woosley, J. M. Brown, and H. T. Janka, Core-Collapse Supernovae from 9 to 120 Solar Masses Based on Neutrino-powered Explosions, Astrophys. J.821, 38 (2016), arXiv:1510.04643 [astro- ph.HE]

    2016 arXiv

  81. [89]

    Sukhbold, S

    T. Sukhbold, S. Woosley, and A. Heger, A High- resolution Study of Presupernova Core Structure, As- trophys. J.860, 93 (2018), arXiv:1710.03243 [astro- ph.HE]

    2018 arXiv

  82. [90]

    M. A. Skinner, J. C. Dolence, A. Burrows, D. Radice, and D. Vartanyan, Fornax: a Flexible Code for Multi- physics Astrophysical Simulations, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 241, 7 (2019), arXiv:1806.07390 [astro-ph.IM]

    2019 arXiv

  83. [91]

    Schwarz, Estimating the Dimension of a Model, An- nals Statist.6, 461 (1978)

    G. Schwarz, Estimating the Dimension of a Model, An- nals Statist.6, 461 (1978)

    1978

  84. [92]

    A. A. Neath and J. E. Cavanaugh, The Bayesian Infor- mation Criterion: Background, Derivation, and Appli- cations, WIREs Computational Statistics4, 199 (2012), https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/wics.199

    2012 doi

  85. [93]

    Burrows and D

    A. Burrows and D. Vartanyan, Core-Collapse Su- pernova Explosion Theory, Nature589, 29 (2021), arXiv:2009.14157 [astro-ph.SR]

    2021 arXiv

  86. [94]

    O’Connor and C

    E. O’Connor and C. D. Ott, Black Hole Formation in Failing Core-Collapse Supernovae, Astrophys. J.730, 70 (2011), arXiv:1010.5550 [astro-ph.HE]

    2011 arXiv

  87. [95]

    Smarr, Gravitational Radiation from Distant En- 19 counters and from Headon Collisions of Black Holes: The Zero Frequency Limit, Phys

    L. Smarr, Gravitational Radiation from Distant En- 19 counters and from Headon Collisions of Black Holes: The Zero Frequency Limit, Phys. Rev. D15, 2069 (1977)

    1977

  88. [96]

    N. Sago, K. Ioka, T. Nakamura, and R. Yamazaki, Grav- itational wave memory of gamma-ray burst jets, Phys. Rev. D70, 104012 (2004), arXiv:gr-qc/0405067

    2004 arXiv

  89. [97]

    Leiderschneider and T

    E. Leiderschneider and T. Piran, Gravitational radia- tion from accelerating jets, Phys. Rev. D104, 104002 (2021), arXiv:2107.12418 [astro-ph.HE]

    2021 arXiv

  90. [98]

    Sakai, R

    Y. Sakai, R. Yamazaki, Y. Okutani, S. Ueno, N. Sago, M. Meyer-Conde, and H. Takahashi, Gravitational wave memory from accelerating relativistic jets in multiple thick shell scenarios, Phys. Rev. D112, 064029 (2025), arXiv:2502.06110 [astro-ph.HE]

    2025

  91. [99]

    Mueller, H.-T

    B. Mueller, H.-T. Janka, and A. Marek, A New Multi- Dimensional General Relativistic Neutrino Hydrody- namics Code of Core-Collapse Supernovae III. Gravita- tional Wave Signals from Supernova Explosion Models, Astrophys. J.766, 43 (2013), arXiv:1210.6984 [astro- ph.SR]

    2013 arXiv

  92. [100]

    C. J. Richardson, A. Mezzacappa, K. Schluterman, H. Andresen, E. J. Lentz, P. Marronetti, R. D. Mur- phy, and M. Zanolin, Low-frequency gravitational waves in three-dimensional core-collapse supernova models, Phys. Rev. D112, 123025 (2025), arXiv:2510.08764 [astro-ph.HE]

    2025

  93. [101]

    D. I. Dunsky, L. J. Hall, and K. Harigaya, A heavy QCD axion and the mirror world, JHEP02, 212, arXiv:2302.04274 [hep-ph]

    arXiv

  94. [102]

    C. J. Richardson, H. Andresen, A. Mezzacappa, M. Zanolin, M. G. Benjamin, P. Marronetti, E. J. Lentz, and M. J. Szczepanczyk, Detecting Gravitational Wave Memory in the Next Galactic Core-Collapse Supernova, Phys. Rev. Lett.133, 231401 (2024), arXiv:2404.02131 [astro-ph.HE]

    2024

  95. [103]

    Tinto, J

    M. Tinto, J. W. Armstrong, and F. B. Estabrook, Dis- criminating a gravitational wave background from in- strumental noise in the LISA detector, Phys. Rev. D 63, 021101 (2001)

    2001

  96. [104]

    J. D. Romano and N. J. Cornish, Detection meth- ods for stochastic gravitational-wave backgrounds: a unified treatment, Living Rev. Rel.20, 2 (2017), arXiv:1608.06889 [gr-qc]

    2017 arXiv

  97. [105]

    Yagi and N

    K. Yagi and N. Seto, Detector configuration of DE- CIGO/BBO and identification of cosmological neutron- star binaries, Phys. Rev. D83, 044011 (2011), [Erra- tum: Phys.Rev.D 95, 109901 (2017)], arXiv:1101.3940 [astro-ph.CO]

    2011 arXiv

  98. [106]

    Kuroyanagi, K

    S. Kuroyanagi, K. Nakayama, and J. Yokoyama, Prospects of determination of reheating temperature af- ter inflation by DECIGO, PTEP2015, 013E02 (2015), arXiv:1410.6618 [astro-ph.CO]

    2015 arXiv

  99. [107]

    Thrane and J

    E. Thrane and J. D. Romano, Sensitivity curves for searches for gravitational-wave backgrounds, Phys. Rev. D88, 124032 (2013), arXiv:1310.5300 [astro-ph.IM]

    2013 arXiv

  100. [108]

    6 are not directly related to the SNR values in Table II

    We caution that the PLISC curves shown in fig. 6 are not directly related to the SNR values in Table II. SNRs can be obtained from PLISCs only for signal spectra that are close to a power-law in the frequency band most relevant to each detector (see Ref. [44]), which is not th...

  101. [109]

    P. A. R. Adeet al.(Planck), Planck 2015 results. XIII. Cosmological parameters, Astron. Astrophys.594, A13 (2016), arXiv:1502.01589 [astro-ph.CO]

    2016 arXiv

  102. [110]

    X.-J. Zhu, E. J. Howell, D. G. Blair, and Z.-H. Zhu, On the gravitational wave background from compact bi- nary coalescences in the band of ground-based interfer- ometers, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.431, 882 (2013), arXiv:1209.0595 [gr-qc]

    2013 arXiv

  103. [111]

    D. S. Bellie, S. Banagiri, Z. Doctor, and V. Kalogera, Unresolved stochastic background from compact bi- nary mergers detectable by next-generation ground- based gravitational-wave observatories, Phys. Rev. D 110, 023006 (2024), arXiv:2310.02517 [gr-qc]

    2024 arXiv

  104. [112]

    Abeet al.(Super-Kamiokande), Diffuse super- nova neutrino background search at Super-Kamiokande, Phys

    K. Abeet al.(Super-Kamiokande), Diffuse super- nova neutrino background search at Super-Kamiokande, Phys. Rev. D104, 122002 (2021), arXiv:2109.11174 [astro-ph.HE]

    2021

  105. [113]

    Abeet al.(Super-Kamiokande), Search for Diffuse Supernova Neutrino Background with 956.2 Days of Super-Kamiokande Gadolinium Dataset, Astrophys

    K. Abeet al.(Super-Kamiokande), Search for Diffuse Supernova Neutrino Background with 956.2 Days of Super-Kamiokande Gadolinium Dataset, Astrophys. J. 1005, 101 (2026), arXiv:2511.02222 [astro-ph.HE]

    2026 arXiv

  106. [114]

    Pejcha and T

    O. Pejcha and T. A. Thompson, The Landscape of the Neutrino Mechanism of Core-Collapse Supernovae: Neutron Star and Black Hole Mass Functions, Explo- sion Energies and Nickel Yields, Astrophys. J.801, 90 (2015), arXiv:1409.0540 [astro-ph.HE]

    2015 arXiv

  107. [115]

    M¨ uller, A

    B. M¨ uller, A. Heger, D. Liptai, and J. B. Cameron, A simple approach to the supernova progenitor–explosion connection, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.460, 742 (2016), arXiv:1602.05956 [astro-ph.SR]

    2016 arXiv

  108. [116]

    T. Ertl, H. T. Janka, S. E. Woosley, T. Sukhbold, and M. Ugliano, A two-parameter criterion for classify- ing the explodability of massive stars by the neutrino- driven mechanism, Astrophys. J.818, 124 (2016), arXiv:1503.07522 [astro-ph.SR]

    2016 arXiv

  109. [117]

    M. A. Pajkos, S. Boyeneni, and O. E. Ander- sen, Rotational effects on neutrino emission in core- collapse supernovae, Phys. Rev. D113, 063051 (2026), arXiv:2508.17633 [astro-ph.HE]

    2026

  110. [118]

    Corbin and N

    V. Corbin and N. J. Cornish, Detecting the cosmic gravitational wave background with the big bang ob- server, Class. Quant. Grav.23, 2435 (2006), arXiv:gr- qc/0512039

    2006

  111. [119]

    M. A. Seddaet al., The missing link in gravitational- wave astronomy: discoveries waiting in the deci- hertz range, Class. Quant. Grav.37, 215011 (2020), arXiv:1908.11375 [gr-qc]

    2020 arXiv

  112. [120]

    Maggiore,Gravitational Waves, Volume 2: Astro- physics and Cosmology(Oxford University Press, Ox- ford, UK, 2018)

    M. Maggiore,Gravitational Waves, Volume 2: Astro- physics and Cosmology(Oxford University Press, Ox- ford, UK, 2018)

    2018

  113. [121]

    B. P. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), GW170817: Implications for the Stochastic Gravitational-Wave Background from Compact Binary Coalescences, Phys. Rev. Lett.120, 091101 (2018), arXiv:1710.05837 [gr-qc]

    2018 arXiv

  114. [122]

    P. A. Seoaneet al.(LISA), Astrophysics with the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, Living Rev. Rel.26, 2 (2023), arXiv:2203.06016 [gr-qc]

    2023 arXiv

  115. [123]

    Lehoucq, I

    L. Lehoucq, I. Dvorkin, and L. Rezzolla, Post- merger emissions: A new and dominant contribu- tion to the gravitational-wave background from bi- nary neutron stars, Phys. Rev. D113, L041306 (2026), arXiv:2503.20877 [astro-ph.HE]

    2026 arXiv

  116. [124]

    Regimbau, M

    T. Regimbau, M. Evans, N. Christensen, E. Katsavouni- dis, B. Sathyaprakash, and S. Vitale, Digging deeper: Observing primordial gravitational waves below the bi- nary black hole produced stochastic background, Phys. Rev. Lett.118, 151105 (2017), arXiv:1611.08943 [astro- 20 ph.CO]

    2017 arXiv

  117. [125]

    Sachdev, T

    S. Sachdev, T. Regimbau, and B. S. Sathyaprakash, Subtracting compact binary foreground sources to re- veal primordial gravitational-wave backgrounds, Phys. Rev. D102, 024051 (2020), arXiv:2002.05365 [gr-qc]

    2020 arXiv

  118. [126]

    Pan and H

    Z. Pan and H. Yang, Improving the detection sensi- tivity to primordial stochastic gravitational waves with reduced astrophysical foregrounds, Phys. Rev. D107, 123036 (2023), arXiv:2301.04529 [gr-qc]

    2023 arXiv

  119. [127]

    B. Zhou, L. Reali, E. Berti, M. C ¸ alı¸ skan, C. Creque-Sarbinowski, M. Kamionkowski, and B. S. Sathyaprakash, Subtracting compact binary foregrounds to search for subdominant gravitational- wave backgrounds in next-generation ground-based observatories, Phys. Rev. D108, 0640...

    2023 arXiv

  120. [128]

    J. Kume, M. Peloso, M. Pieroni, and A. Ricciardone, Assessing the impact of unequal noises and foreground modeling on SGWB reconstruction with LISA, JCAP 06, 030, arXiv:2410.10342 [gr-qc]

    arXiv

  121. [129]

    H. Song, D. Liang, Z. Wang, and L. Shao, Impact of spin in compact binary foreground subtraction for estimating the residual stochastic gravitational-wave background in ground-based detectors, Phys. Rev. D109, 123014 (2024), arXiv:2401.00984 [gr-qc]

    2024 arXiv

  122. [130]

    Einsle, M.-A

    H. Einsle, M.-A. Bizouard, T. Regimbau, and M. Sakel- lariadou, Gravitational-wave background detection us- ing machine learning, Phys. Rev. D112, 063056 (2025), arXiv:2506.14764 [gr-qc]

    2025 arXiv

  123. [131]

    Kroupa, On the variation of the initial mass func- tion, Mon

    P. Kroupa, On the variation of the initial mass func- tion, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.322, 231 (2001), arXiv:astro-ph/0009005

    2001 arXiv

  124. [132]

    Chabrier, Galactic stellar and substellar initial mass function, Publ

    G. Chabrier, Galactic stellar and substellar initial mass function, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac.115, 763 (2003), arXiv:astro-ph/0304382

    2003 arXiv

  125. [133]

    Horiuchi, J

    S. Horiuchi, J. F. Beacom, C. S. Kochanek, J. L. Prieto, K. Z. Stanek, and T. A. Thompson, The Cosmic Core- collapse Supernova Rate does not match the Massive- Star Formation Rate, Astrophys. J.738, 154 (2011), arXiv:1102.1977 [astro-ph.CO]

    2011 arXiv

  126. [134]

    Aoyama, M

    S. Aoyama, M. Ouchi, and Y. Harikane, Stellar Ini- tial Mass Function (IMF) Probed with Supernova Rates and Neutrino Background: Cosmic-average IMF Slope Is≃2–3 Similar to the Salpeter IMF, Astrophys. J.946, 69 (2023), arXiv:2111.02624 [astro-ph.GA]

    2023 arXiv

  127. [135]

    Harikane, Y

    Y. Harikane, Y. Ono, M. Ouchi, L. Chengze, M. Saw- icki, T. Shibuya, P. S. Behroozi, W. He, K. Shimasaku, S. Arnouts, J. Coupon, S. Fujimoto, S. Gwyn, J. Huang, A. K. Inoue, N. Kashikawa, Y. Komiyama, Y. Mat- suoka, and C. J. Willott, GOLDRUSH. IV. Luminos- ity Functions and C...

    2022 arXiv

  128. [136]

    Harikane, M

    Y. Harikane, M. Ouchi, M. Oguri, Y. Ono, K. Naka- jima, Y. Isobe, H. Umeda, K. Mawatari, and Y. Zhang, A Comprehensive Study of Galaxies at z ∼9–16 Found in the Early JWST Data: Ultravi- olet Luminosity Functions and Cosmic Star Forma- tion History at the Pre-reionization Epoc...

    2023 arXiv

  129. [137]

    Madau and M

    P. Madau and M. Dickinson, Cosmic Star Formation History, Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys.52, 415 (2014), arXiv:1403.0007 [astro-ph.CO]

    2014 arXiv

Pith tools

Reviewed August 7, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.