pith. sign in

arxiv: 2607.00032 · v2 · pith:H5U2ZT6Enew · submitted 2026-06-22 · 💻 cs.AI

The MMM Data Model -- A Normative Specification for Knowledge Interoperability in a Decentralisable Knowledge Commons

Mathilde Noual This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-07-03 23:01 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 💻 cs.AI
keywords knowledge interoperabilitydata modelnormative constraintsfree-text labelsdecentralisable knowledge commonsinterdisciplinary collaborationknowledge documentation
0
0 comments X

The pith

MMM is a data model that pairs a small set of normative constraints with free-text labels to enable knowledge interoperability across disciplines without requiring semantic convergence.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper presents MMM as a response to the constraints of document-centric systems and the adoption barriers of formal approaches in knowledge exchange. It emerged from practical needs in interdisciplinary collaborative research and is positioned as a method that maintains expressive freedom while imposing minimal normative structure. This design targets interoperability across applications and deployments by avoiding the need for shared semantics. The work includes a reference implementation and pilot data to show that the approach is buildable and usable in early deployments.

Core claim

MMM is a data model for knowledge documentation that combines a small set of normative constraints with the expressive freedom of free-text labels. It supports structuring, updating, sharing and reuse of knowledge in ways that move beyond self-contained documents while remaining portable across disciplines, applications and deployments without mandating semantic convergence.

What carries the argument

The MMM data model, which applies a minimal normative core to knowledge elements while permitting unrestricted free-text labels for content and relations.

If this is right

  • Knowledge structures can be updated and reused more flexibly than in linear documents.
  • Interoperability becomes possible across disciplines without requiring agreement on meanings.
  • The model supports decentralisable knowledge commons by remaining portable across deployments.
  • A reference implementation confirms that the minimal constraints are sufficient for basic functionality.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • MMM could serve as a bridge layer allowing AI-generated content to integrate with human-maintained knowledge records.
  • The approach might extend to domains like collaborative science platforms where participants resist formal ontologies.
  • Pilot data could be used to test whether label diversity scales without creating fragmentation in larger user groups.

Load-bearing premise

A small normative core plus free-text labels is sufficient to deliver practical interoperability and adoption where formal and document-centric systems have not.

What would settle it

A multi-disciplinary deployment in which participants using MMM fail to share or reuse knowledge across groups without adding further semantic agreements or external mappings.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2607.00032 by Mathilde Noual.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: The design space of information systems across three architectural dimensions: interoperability, decentralisability, and epistemic breadth (the non-assertional axis). The only existing systems so far that satisfy all three are not knowledge systems. Following the dimension definitions discussed above, no existing system is epistemically struc￾tured, epistemically broad (beyond assertional facts), write dec… view at source ↗
Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: The design space of information systems across three architectural dimensions: Interoperabil￾ity, Write Decentralisability, and epistemic breadth (the non-assertional axis). Among the systems considered here, the only ones that satisfy all three are not Knowledge Systems. A complementary way of looking at the design space is simply through the two dimensions: Human Primacy and the presence of a Normative D… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Human Primacy, Adoption Ease and Accessibility (whether the contribution barrier is low), and Normative Data Model across the design space. Semi-transparent: restricted scope (no Universal Scope). OSM challenges the assumption that the level of formalisation required by the Semantic Web stack [2,29,30] is a precondition for interoperability in general, rather than one powerful imple￾mentation suited specif… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Human Primacy, Adoption Ease and Accessibility (whether the contribution barrier is low), and Normative Data Model across the design space. Semi-transparent: non-Universal Scope. enough contribution barriers to enable broad population of the system, with sufficient structure to organise collective documentation and support Interoperability. The historically contingent evolution of permissive, document-cent… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Illustration of MMM’s fine-grained filtering capabilities using a real researcher workspace on a MMM-based note-taking prototype application. Courtesy of D. Pastor and V. Thomas-Vaslin who turned their hundreds of MMM research notes into a peer-reviewed publication [59]. • Two bidirectional types (Equate and Differ) to express similarity (e.g. equivalence, equality, synonymy) and difference (e.g., oppositi… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Illustration of MMM’s fine-grained filtering capabilities using a real researcher workspace on a MMM-based note-taking prototype application. Courtesy of D. Pastor. 3.2 Formal Typing The type field is mandatory for all user-created MMM contributions. However, applications may supply a default type when the user does not provide one. For users, typing should be like hashtags in social media and like punctua… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: MMM-based prototype applications. Top: a functional interactive presentation research prototype (see also [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p030_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: MMM-based prototype applications. Top: a functional research prototype for interactive presen￾tation (see also [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: CREPE 2026 group B1 workspace: an example of graph strongly relying on MMM edge types although not consistently relying on the normative semantics of typed edge directions. 4.3 Pedagogical usage setting The second usage context is a repeated educational exercise designed by higher education physics instructors, conducted over two consecutive years (2025 and 2026) within CapECL a satellite en￾gineering prog… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: An example of CREPE 2026 student graph strongly relying on MMM edge types although not consistently relying on the normative semantics of typed edge directions. the report and collectively mapping their conceptual and bibliographic understanding of it (its related questions, answers, challenges, and supporting sources) as an MMM graph. An example assertion studied by one group is the following: "Emissions … view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The stratified zooming in Myrmex makes use of Stratum marks (cf §3.3) The exercise has three phases. In the first, each group documents their chosen assertion. In the second, each group is assigned one or two other groups’ graphs and must formulate questions about that work based solely on what they can read in the MMM graph, without consulting the authors — a direct test of the Epistemic Structure and Pos… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The stratified zooming in Myrmex makes use of Stratum marks (cf §3.3) The exercise has three phases. In the first, each group documents their chosen assertion. In the second, each group is assigned one or two other groups’ graphs and must formulate Questions about that work based solely on what they can read in the MMM graph (a test of the Epis￾temic Structure and Post-Document Organisation properties of t… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: An MMM browser extension to extract text and images from external sources, keeping references to original sources embedded in the new MMM contributions. Questions. The CREPE student questions, including those produced during the cross-group phase illustrate the epistemic range the data model accommodates. They span formal mathe￾matical reasoning (“Why use a Poisson distribution here, and how is λ calculate… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: An MMM browser extension to extract text and images from external sources, keeping references to original sources embedded in the new MMM contributions [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p028_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: A student question asking "Why are we discussing those ones and not the others?". Redundancy. Two groups independently formulated near-identical questions about ice cube melt￾ing from slightly different angles (“When an ice cube melts in a glass, the water level doesn’t change, does it?” / “And yet, when an ice cube melets in a glass of water, the water level doesn’t rise from start to finish, does it?”) (… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: A student question asking "Why are we discussing those ones and not the others?". Redundancy. Two groups independently formulated near-identical Questions about ice cube melting from slightly different angles ("When an ice cube melts in a glass, the water level doesn’t change, does it?" / "And yet, when an ice cube melts in a glass of water, the water level doesn’t rise from start to finish, does it?") (Re… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Detail of a CREPE 2026 student workspace illustrating voluntary enrichment beyond the assign￾ment requirements: image attachments and hyperlinks to original web sources added spontaneously by students, without instruction to do so. edges to the graph, or only added edges and Question vertices. Commentators used Questions, Challenges, and RelatesTo edge types. In the CREPE exercise, workspaces have up to 6 … view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Detail of a CREPE 2026 student workspace illustrating voluntary enrichment beyond the assign￾ment requirements: image attachments and hyperlinks to original web sources added spontaneously by students. Kind Type Count % of kind Vertex Narrative 2513 52.9 Existence 949 20.0 Data 533 11.2 Question 433 9.1 Instruction 326 6.9 Edge RelatesTo 1659 29.1 Pertains 1623 28.5 Instantiates 553 9.7 Answers 538 9.4 Equ… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: CREPE 2026 group D4 workspace: an example of epistemic structure expressed primarily through visual styling and layout rather than MMM edge type conventions [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p039_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: CREPE 2026 group D4 workspace: an example of epistemic structure expressed primarily through visual styling and layout rather than MMM edge type conventions. However, these idiosyncratic usage patterns are entirely consistent with MMM’s design intent. In line with the Human Primacy, Expression Intent, and Immediate & Local Value dimensions, the data model does not impose correctness on end users (cf §3.4)… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Detail of a CREPE 2026 student workspace centred on the primary IPCC claim, illustrating a common usage pattern in which edges radiate outward from the central assertion irrespective of the normative directional semantics of typed edges. Edge labels carry the relational meaning intended by the contributors [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p039_11.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: A selection of CREPE 2026 student group workspaces illustrating the diversity of documentation practices that emerge within a single MMM-based exercise, showing that expressive visual organisation and MMM typing can coexist. Groups vary in their use of spatial layout, colour coding, and typing to structure the information – all valid choices within MMM’S flexible contribution framework. Workspaces at the … view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: A selection of CREPE 2026 student group workspaces illustrating the diversity of documenta￾tion practices that emerge within a single MMM-based exercise, demonstrating that expressive visual organisation and MMM typing are not mutually exclusive. Groups vary in their use of spatial layout, colour coding, and epistemic typing to structure their graphs — all valid expressions within the data model’s flexibl… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: MMM formatted data can be qualified using formal metrics and visualised accordingly. Our reference app Myrmex demonstrates this through a small set of naive metrics including so-called "useful￾ness" and "depth" (number of contributions along an outgoing/incoming path). Courtesy of D. Pastor. 7.2 Metrics An additional line of work concerns MMM-based metrics to qualify knowledge. MMM’s for￾mal structure all… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: MMM formatted data can be qualified using formal metrics and visualised accordingly. Our reference app Myrmex demonstrates this through a small set of naive metrics including so-called "useful￾ness" and "depth" (number of contributions along an outgoing/incoming path). Courtesy of D. Pastor and V. Thomas-Vaslin who turned their MMM research notes into a peer-reviewed publication [59]. 6.4 Persistence and … view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Many information systems are built around documents: self-contained units optimised for print production and linear reading. While effective for large-scale dissemination, the document-centric organisation constrains how knowledge can be structured, updated, shared, and reused. Formal approaches address some of these limitations but struggle to achieve widespread contribution and adoption due to their prioritisation of formal structure over other system properties such as human usability and scope. AI systems are reshaping document production, but without providing a unified portable alternative to traditional documents for humans' expression and exchange of knowledge. This paper presents MMM, a data model for knowledge documentation that emerged from the practical needs of interdisciplinary collaborative research, and positioned here within a comparative analysis of the design space of information systems. MMM combines a small set of normative constraints with the expressive freedom of free-text labels. It is designed for interoperability across disciplines, applications and deployments without requiring semantic convergence. A reference implementation and pilot deployment data demonstrate implementability and early usability.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 0 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents MMM, a data model for knowledge documentation that emerged from interdisciplinary collaborative research needs. It positions MMM in the design space of information systems by combining a small set of normative constraints with the expressive freedom of free-text labels, claiming this enables interoperability across disciplines, applications, and deployments without requiring semantic convergence. A reference implementation and pilot deployment data are cited to demonstrate implementability and early usability, contrasting with limitations of document-centric and formal approaches as well as AI-driven document production.

Significance. If the design and supporting evidence hold, MMM could provide a practical middle ground for knowledge representation that prioritizes both structure and human usability, potentially lowering barriers to contribution and reuse in decentralized, cross-disciplinary settings compared to existing formal or document-based systems.

major comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the central claim that a small normative core plus unrestricted free-text labels is sufficient to achieve practical interoperability across disciplines and deployments without semantic convergence is asserted but not supported by mechanism details, metrics of successful data exchange between independent parties, or comparisons showing reduced adoption barriers; the reference implementation and pilot data are mentioned without quantitative results or constraints list.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive feedback and positive evaluation of MMM's potential. We respond to the single major comment below, acknowledging where the abstract requires strengthening while clarifying the support present in the full manuscript.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the central claim that a small normative core plus unrestricted free-text labels is sufficient to achieve practical interoperability across disciplines and deployments without semantic convergence is asserted but not supported by mechanism details, metrics of successful data exchange between independent parties, or comparisons showing reduced adoption barriers; the reference implementation and pilot data are mentioned without quantitative results or constraints list.

    Authors: The full manuscript provides the mechanism details via the explicit list of normative constraints in Section 3, which define the minimal core while permitting free-text labels for cross-disciplinary use without enforced semantic convergence. Section 2 contains the comparative analysis positioning MMM against document-centric and formal systems with respect to adoption barriers. Sections 5 and 6 describe the reference implementation and pilot deployment, respectively. We agree the abstract is too concise to convey these elements and will revise it to include a brief enumeration of the core constraints and to clarify that the pilot evidence is qualitative (usability and implementability) rather than quantitative. The manuscript does not report quantitative metrics of successful data exchange between independent parties, as the contribution is a normative specification supported by an initial pilot rather than a large-scale empirical study of exchanges. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: normative specification without derivations or self-referential reductions

full rationale

The paper is a normative specification for a data model (MMM) that combines minimal constraints with free-text labels. No equations, fitted parameters, predictions of derived quantities, or load-bearing self-citations appear in the abstract or described structure. The positioning within the design space and claims of interoperability are presented as design choices justified by practical needs and a reference implementation, not as outputs derived from prior inputs by construction. No steps match any enumerated circularity pattern; the work is self-contained as a proposal rather than a derivation chain.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 1 invented entities

The central claim rests on the domain assumption that interoperability without semantic convergence is both desirable and achievable via the stated design; the MMM model itself is the primary invented entity.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Interoperability across disciplines can be achieved without requiring semantic convergence on term meanings.
    Stated directly in the abstract as the design goal of MMM.
invented entities (1)
  • MMM data model no independent evidence
    purpose: Normative specification combining minimal constraints with free-text labels for knowledge documentation.
    The model is introduced as the paper's core contribution emerging from practical research needs.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5690 in / 1280 out tokens · 28323 ms · 2026-07-03T23:01:41.378721+00:00 · methodology

Review history (2 revisions) →

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

70 extracted references · 9 canonical work pages · 4 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    In: Bernstein, A., Karger, D.R., Heath, T., Feigenbaum, L., Maynard, D., Motta, E., Thirunarayan, K

    Auer, S., Lehmann, J., Hellmann, S.: Linkedgeodata: Adding a spatial dimension to the web of data. In: Bernstein, A., Karger, D.R., Heath, T., Feigenbaum, L., Maynard, D., Motta, E., Thirunarayan, K. (eds.) The Semantic Web - ISWC. pp. 731–746. Springer Berlin Heidelberg (2009)

    2009

  2. [2]

    Baader, F., Calvanese, D., McGuinness, D., Nardi, D., Patel-Schneider, P.: The Description Logic Handbook: Theory, Implementation and Applications. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2 edn. (2007)

    2007

  3. [3]

    PLOS ONE12(8), 1–20 (2017)

    Barrington-Leigh, C., Millard-Ball, A.: The world’s user-generated road map is more than 80% complete. PLOS ONE12(8), 1–20 (2017)

    2017

  4. [4]

    Yale University Press (2006)

    Benkler, Y.: The wealth of networks: How social production transforms markets and freedom. Yale University Press (2006)

    2006

  5. [5]

    Scientific American284(5), 34–43 (2001)

    Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, J., Lassila, O.: The semantic web. Scientific American284(5), 34–43 (2001)

    2001

  6. [6]

    Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 38(16), 17682–17690 (2024)

    Besta, M., Blach, N., Kubicek, A., Gerstenberger, R., Podstawski, M., Gianinazzi, L., Gajda, J., Lehmann, T., Niewiadomski, H., Nyczyk, P., Hoefler, T.: Graph of thoughts: Solving elaborate problems with large language models. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 38(16), 17682–17690 (2024)

    2024

  7. [7]

    IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence47(12), 10967–10989 (2025)

    Besta, M., Memedi, F., Zhang, Z., Gerstenberger, R., Piao, G., Blach, N., Nyczyk, P., Copik, M., Kwaśniewski, G., Müller, J., Gianinazzi, L., Kubicek, A., Niewiadomski, H., O’Mahony, A., Mutlu, O., Hoefler, T.: Demystifying chains, trees, and graphs of thoughts. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence47(12), 10967–10989 (2025)

    2025

  8. [8]

    International Journal on Semantic Web and Information Systems5(3), 1–22 (2009)

    Bizer, C., Heath, T., Berners-Lee, T.: Linked data-the story so far. International Journal on Semantic Web and Information Systems5(3), 1–22 (2009)

    2009

  9. [9]

    In: Proceedings of the 2008 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data

    Bollacker, K., Evans, C., Paritosh, P., Sturge, T., Taylor, J.: Freebase: a collaboratively created graph database for structuring human knowledge. In: Proceedings of the 2008 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data. pp. 1247–1250. SIGMOD ’08 (2008)

    2008

  10. [10]

    Bommasani, R., Hudson, D.A., Adeli, E., Altman, R., Arora, S., von Arx, S., Bernstein, M.S., Bohg, J., Bosselut, A., Brunskill, E., Brynjolfsson, E., Buch, S., Card, D., Castellon, R., Chatterji, N., Chen, A., Creel, K., Davis, J.Q., Demszky, D., Donahue, C., Doumbouya, M., Durmus, E., Ermon, S., Etchemendy, J., Ethayarajh, K., Fei-Fei, L., Finn, C., Gale...

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2022

  11. [11]

    Brereton, D.: The next Google (2022), https://dkb.blog/p/the-next-google, dKB Blog

    2022

  12. [12]

    The atlantic monthly176(1), 101–108 (1945)

    Bush, V.: As we may think. The atlantic monthly176(1), 101–108 (1945)

    1945

  13. [13]

    Chen, L., Zaharia, M., Zou, J.: Frugalgpt: How to use large language models while reducing cost and improving performance (2023), https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.05176

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2023

  14. [14]

    The Knowledge Engineering Review 21(4), 293–316 (2006)

    Chesnevar, C.I., McGinnis, J., Modgil, S., Rahwan, I., Reed, C., Simari, G., South, M., Vreeswijk, G., Willmott, S.: Towards an argument interchange format. The Knowledge Engineering Review 21(4), 293–316 (2006)

    2006

  15. [15]

    W3C Recommen- dation (2014), http://www.w3.org/TR/2014/REC-rdf11-concepts-20140225/

    Cyganiak, R., Wood, D., Lanthaler, M.: RDF 1.1 Concepts and Abstract Syntax. W3C Recommen- dation (2014), http://www.w3.org/TR/2014/REC-rdf11-concepts-20140225/

    2014

  16. [16]

    Communications of the ACM58(9), 92–103 (2015) The MMM Data Model 43

    Davis, E., Marcus, G.: Commonsense reasoning and commonsense knowledge in artificial intelligence. Communications of the ACM58(9), 92–103 (2015) The MMM Data Model 43

    2015

  17. [17]

    In: SGML/XML (1997)

    DeRose, S.J., Maden, C.R.: Problems with dynamically assembled document portions, and some solutions. In: SGML/XML (1997)

    1997

  18. [18]

    In: ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data

    Ellis, C.A., Gibbs, S.J.: Concurrency control in groupware systems. In: ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data. pp. 399–407. SIGMOD ’89 (1989)

    1989

  19. [19]

    University of Chicago Press (1981), originally published in German, 1935

    Fleck, L.: Genesis and development of a scientific fact. University of Chicago Press (1981), originally published in German, 1935. Translated by F. Bradley and T. J. Trenn

    1981

  20. [20]

    Foucault, M.: What is an author? In: Reading architectural history, pp. 71–81. Routledge (2003)

    2003

  21. [21]

    IEEE Pervasive Computing 7(4), 12–18 (2008)

    Haklay, M., Weber, P.: Openstreetmap: User-generated street maps. IEEE Pervasive Computing 7(4), 12–18 (2008)

    2008

  22. [22]

    Haller, A., Polleres, A.: Are we better off with just one ontology on the web? Semantic Web11(1), 87–99 (2020)

    2020

  23. [23]

    W3C Recommendation (2014), https://www

    Hayes, P., Patel-Schneider, P.F.: RDF 1.1 semantics. W3C Recommendation (2014), https://www. w3.org/TR/rdf11-mt/

    2014

  24. [24]

    Hillis, D., Klein, S., Rich, T.: Underlay: A First Description (2018)

    2018

  25. [25]

    Communications of the ACM64(2), 76–83 (2021)

    Hitzler, P.: A review of the semantic web field. Communications of the ACM64(2), 76–83 (2021)

    2021

  26. [26]

    W3C Recommendation (2012), https://www.w3.org/TR/owl2-primer/

    Hitzler,P.,Krötzsch,M.,Parsia,B.,Patel-Schneider,P.F.,Rudolph,S.:Owl2webontologylanguage primer (second edition). W3C Recommendation (2012), https://www.w3.org/TR/owl2-primer/

    2012

  27. [27]

    ACM Comput

    Hogan, A., Blomqvist, E., Cochez, M., D’amato, C., Melo, G.D., Gutierrez, C., Kirrane, S., Gayo, J.E.L., Navigli, R., Neumaier, S., Ngomo, A.C.N., Polleres, A., Rashid, S.M., Rula, A., Schmelzeisen, L., Sequeda, J., Staab, S., Zimmermann, A.: Knowledge graphs. ACM Comput. Surv.54(4) (2021)

    2021

  28. [28]

    In: International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM)

    Hristova, D., Quattrone, G., Mashhadi, A., Capra, L.: The life of the party: Impact of social mapping in OpenStreetMap. In: International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM). vol. 7, pp. 234–243 (2013)

    2013

  29. [29]

    Huang, S., Siddarth, D.: Generative ai and the digital commons (2023), https://arxiv.org/abs/2303. 11074

    2023

  30. [30]

    The information society16(3), 169–185 (2000)

    Introna, L.D., Nissenbaum, H.: Shaping the web: Why the politics of search engines matters. The information society16(3), 169–185 (2000)

    2000

  31. [31]

    IPCC: Summary for Policymakers, pp. 3–32. Cambridge University Press (2021)

    2021

  32. [32]

    Jeuris, S.: Socratrees: Exploring the design of argument technology for layman users (2020), https: //arxiv.org/abs/1812.04478

    work page arXiv 2020

  33. [33]

    In: Proc

    Kiermer, V., Adams, S., Bibbins-Domingo, K., Flores Bueso, Y., Jamieson, K.H., Heber, J., Hos- seini, M., Marušić, A., Nielsen, B., Skipper, M., Swamy, G.K., Wolf, S.M.: Creating a responsible authorship culture in science: Anchoring authorship practices in principles of transparency, credit, and accountability. In: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. vol. 123 (2026)

    2026

  34. [34]

    IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems28(10), 2733–2746 (2017)

    Kleppmann, M., Beresford, A.R.: A conflict-free replicated JSON datatype. IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems28(10), 2733–2746 (2017)

    2017

  35. [35]

    https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2506.11135

    Krakauer, D.C., Krakauer, J.W., Mitchell, M.: Large language models and emergence: A complex systems perspective (2025). https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2506.11135

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2506.11135 2025

  36. [36]

    University of Chicago Press (1962)

    Kuhn, T.S.: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press (1962)

    1962

  37. [37]

    Kunz, W., Rittel, H.W.: Issues as elements of information systems (working paper). Tech. rep., Berkeley: Institute of Urban and Regional Development (1970)

    1970

  38. [38]

    Harvard uni- versity press (1987)

    Latour, B.: Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Harvard uni- versity press (1987)

    1987

  39. [39]

    Princeton University Press (1986)

    Latour, B., Woolgar, S.: Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts. Princeton University Press (1986)

    1986

  40. [40]

    AI & Society40(6), 5063–5076 (2025)

    Lindemann, N.F.: Chatbots, search engines, and the sealing of knowledges. AI & Society40(6), 5063–5076 (2025)

    2025

  41. [41]

    In: Öffentliche Meinung und sozialer Wandel/Public Opinion and Social Change, pp

    Luhmann, N.: Kommunikation mit zettelkästen: Ein erfahrungsbericht. In: Öffentliche Meinung und sozialer Wandel/Public Opinion and Social Change, pp. 222–228. Springer (1981)

    1981

  42. [42]

    Journal of the Association for Information Science & Technology66(2), 219–245 (2015)

    Mesgari, M., Okoli, C., Mehdi, M., Nielsen, F.A., Lanamäki, A.: The sum of all human knowledge: A systematic review of scholarly research on the content of wikipedia. Journal of the Association for Information Science & Technology66(2), 219–245 (2015)

    2015

  43. [43]

    Future Inter- net4(1), 285–305 (2012)

    Mooney, P., Corcoran, P.: Characteristics of heavily edited objects in OpenStreetMap. Future Inter- net4(1), 285–305 (2012)

    2012

  44. [44]

    ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information1(2), 146–165 (2012)

    Neis,P.,Zipf, A.: Analyzing the contributor activity of avolunteered geographic informationproject– the case of openstreetmap. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information1(2), 146–165 (2012)

    2012

  45. [45]

    Mindful Press, Sausalito, CA (1981) The MMM Data Model 44

    Nelson, T.H.: Literary Machines. Mindful Press, Sausalito, CA (1981) The MMM Data Model 44

    1981

  46. [46]

    arXiv preprint arXiv:2508.06470 (2025)

    Noroozian, A., Aldana, L., Arisi, M., Asghari, H., Avila, R., Bizzaro, P.G., Chandrasekhar, R., Consonni, C., De Angelis, D., De Chiara, F., et al.: Generative ai and the future of the digital commons: Five open questions and knowledge gaps. arXiv preprint arXiv:2508.06470 (2025)

    work page arXiv 2025

  47. [47]

    Noual, M.: Perspectives and networks (2016), http://arxiv.org/abs/1610.08765

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2016

  48. [48]

    Theoretical Computer Science504, 12–25 (2013)

    Noual, M., Regnault, D., Sené, S.: About non-monotony in boolean automata networks. Theoretical Computer Science504, 12–25 (2013)

    2013

  49. [49]

    Human–computer interaction15(2-3), 139–178 (2000)

    Olson, G.M., Olson, J.S.: Distance matters. Human–computer interaction15(2-3), 139–178 (2000)

    2000

  50. [50]

    openstreetmap.org/wiki/API

    OpenStreetMap Contributors: OpenStreetMap API Usage Policy (2024), https://wiki. openstreetmap.org/wiki/API

    2024

  51. [51]

    Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1990)

    Ostrom, E.: Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1990)

    1990

  52. [52]

    EPJ Web Conf.366, 01009 (2026)

    Pastor, Dominique, Fernandez, Jonas, Thomas-Vaslin, Véronique: The generic sensory automaton (gensa) for modeling affinity-based dynamics and interactions in biology. EPJ Web Conf.366, 01009 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/202636601009

    work page doi:10.1051/epjconf/202636601009 2026

  53. [53]

    Knowledge, Technology & Policy12(3), 23–49 (1999)

    Raymond, E.S.: The cathedral and the bazaar: Musings on Linux and open source by an accidental revolutionary. Knowledge, Technology & Policy12(3), 23–49 (1999)

    1999

  54. [54]

    The MIT Press (08 2010)

    Reagle, J.: Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia. The MIT Press (08 2010)

    2010

  55. [55]

    PNAS nexus3(9), pgae400 (2024)

    delRio-Chanona,R.M.,Laurentsyeva,N.,Wachs,J.:Largelanguagemodelsreducepublicknowledge sharing on online q&a platforms. PNAS nexus3(9), pgae400 (2024)

    2024

  56. [56]

    Computer Supported Learning5, 43–102 (2010)

    Scheuer, O., Loll, F., Pinkwart, N., McLaren, B.M.: Computer-supported argumentation: A review of the state of the art. Computer Supported Learning5, 43–102 (2010)

    2010

  57. [57]

    Journal of Cultural Economy12(4), 265– 285 (2019)

    Schneider, N.: Decentralization: an incomplete ambition. Journal of Cultural Economy12(4), 265– 285 (2019)

    2019

  58. [58]

    IEEE Intelligent Systems21(3), 96–101 (2006)

    Shadbolt, N., Berners-Lee, T., Hall, W.: The semantic web revisited. IEEE Intelligent Systems21(3), 96–101 (2006)

    2006

  59. [59]

    Shapiro, M., Preguiça, N., Baquero, C., Zawirski, M.: A comprehensive study of Convergent and Commutative Replicated Data Types. Tech. Rep. RR-7506, INRIA (2011)

    2011

  60. [60]

    Story, H.: contradiction and controversy - was: Is it necessary for the semantic web to be self con- tradictory? W3C Public Mailing List Archive (public-philoweb) (May 2015), https://lists.w3.org/ Archives/Public/public-philoweb/2015May/0004.html, message-Id: <9F05F606-8D4F-4C63-86E3- F7765C83D8C1@bblfish.net>

    2015

  61. [61]

    Sun, K.K.: When ai improves answers but slows knowledge creation: Matching and dynamic knowl- edge creation in digital public goods (2026), https://arxiv.org/abs/2604.00468

    work page arXiv 2026

  62. [62]

    the rise and decline

    TeBlunthuis, N., Shaw, A., Hill, B.M.: Revisiting "the rise and decline" in a population of peer production projects. In: CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. pp. 1–7 (2018)

    2018

  63. [63]

    Trace Labs – OriginTrail Core developers: Verifiable Internet for Artificial Intelligence: The Conver- gence of Crypto, Internet and AI (2024)

    2024

  64. [64]

    Communications of the ACM57(10), 78–85 (2014)

    Vrandečić, D., Krötzsch, M.: Wikidata: a free collaborative knowledgebase. Communications of the ACM57(10), 78–85 (2014)

    2014

  65. [65]

    Emergent Abilities of Large Language Models

    Wei, J., Tay, Y., Bommasani, R., Raffel, C., Zoph, B., Borgeaud, S., Yogatama, D., Bosma, M., Zhou, D., Metzler, D., et al.: Emergent abilities of large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2206.07682 (2022)

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2022

  66. [66]

    php?title=Mapping_parties&oldid=2615609

    Wiki, O.: Mapping parties — openstreetmap wiki, (2023), https://wiki.openstreetmap.org/w/index. php?title=Mapping_parties&oldid=2615609

    2023

  67. [67]

    Zhao, W.X., Zhou, K., Li, J., Tang, T., Wang, X., Hou, Y., Min, Y., Zhang, B., Zhang, J., Dong, Z., Du, Y., Yang, C., Chen, Y., Chen, Z., Jiang, J., Ren, R., Li, Y., Tang, X., Liu, Z., Liu, P., Nie, J.Y., Wen, J.R.: A survey of large language models (2026)

    2026

  68. [68]

    Phd dissertation, University of Michigan (2025)

    Zhu, J.: Solutions for Link Rot on the Modern Web. Phd dissertation, University of Michigan (2025)

    2025

  69. [69]

    World Wide Web27(5), 58 (2024)

    Zhu, Y., Wang, X., Chen, J., Qiao, S., Ou, Y., Yao, Y., Deng, S., Chen, H., Zhang, N.: Llms for knowledge graph construction and reasoning: Recent capabilities and future opportunities. World Wide Web27(5), 58 (2024)

    2024

  70. [70]

    Zittrain, J., Bowers, J., Stanton, C.: The paper of record meets an ephemeral web: An examination of linkrot and content drift within The New York Times. Tech. rep., Library Innovation Lab, Harvard Law School (2021)

    2021