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arxiv: 2606.31847 · v1 · pith:LFAOA4F5new · submitted 2026-06-30 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

AGN Feeding & Feedback Over the Galactic Scales

Filippo M. Maccagni , Vincenzo Mainieri , Isabella Prandoni , Massimo Gaspari , W. J. G. de Blok , Ilaria Ruffa , Stanislav S. Shabala , Dipanjan Mukherjee
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Mayur B. Shende Antonino Marasco Paolo Serra
This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-07-01 04:07 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords AGNfeedingfeedbackSKAOHI gasgalaxy evolutionradio observationsstar formation
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The pith

SKAO will map AGN feeding and feedback by observing hundreds of nearby galaxies down to low radio powers and HI column densities of 10^19 cm^-2 at arcsecond resolution.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

Active galactic nuclei drive galaxy evolution through gas accretion and feedback, but the processes are hard to study because they span from sub-parsec to galactic scales. The paper explains that current observations cannot trace the low-density gas or connect short AGN activity episodes to longer star formation times. SKAO is presented as the tool that will overcome these limits through sensitive radio and HI observations of many nearby AGN. Combining these with other wavelength data will give a complete picture of how AGN affect their host galaxies.

Core claim

The manuscript illustrates how the Square Kilometre Array Observatory will solve observational limitations in AGN feeding and feedback studies. It will observe hundreds of nearby AGN to radio powers of 10^21 W Hz^-1, with simultaneous low and mid frequency data tracing star formation and jets, and HI mapping reaching column densities of about 10^19 cm^-2 at arcsecond resolution to follow inflows, outflows, and multi-phase processes linked to star formation.

What carries the argument

Simultaneous SKA-Low and Mid observations plus arcsecond-resolution HI mapping to trace thermal and synchrotron emission and low-column-density gas in AGN inflows and outflows.

If this is right

  • Characterization of the AGN duty-cycle and timescales of nuclear activities from broad-band radio observations.
  • Tracing the impact of AGN feedback over the full galaxy through low column density HI gas.
  • Understanding fuelling processes from the environment onto the supermassive black hole.
  • Linking multi-phase AGN feeding and feedback to star formation via combined radio, mm, sub-mm and optical observations.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Such observations could provide benchmarks for simulations of how AGN regulate galaxy growth over cosmic time.
  • Statistical samples might reveal whether feedback effects are dominated by rare powerful events or common weak ones.
  • Connecting radio jet properties directly to HI structures could test models of how energy is transferred to the interstellar medium.

Load-bearing premise

The low column density HI gas detected at arcsecond resolution will directly represent the inflows and outflows that regulate AGN activity and its connection to star formation.

What would settle it

A survey with SKAO that finds no association between the detected low-density HI structures and either AGN radio activity or star formation rates in the observed galaxies would challenge the central claim.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.31847 by Antonino Marasco, Dipanjan Mukherjee, Filippo M. Maccagni, Ilaria Ruffa, Isabella Prandoni, Massimo Gaspari, Mayur B. Shende, Paolo Serra, Stanislav S. Shabala, Vincenzo Mainieri, W. J. G. de Blok.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: 1.4 GHz continuum emission of Fornax A (red) overlaid with the neutral hydrogen clouds (blue) detected in the galaxy and its environment [12,13]. The optical image is a composite of the 63-h exposure taken with LRGB filters with a 14-cm CFF refractor located in Hakos Astrofarm, Namibia, by astrophotographer F. Enriques. 2019a). AGN fuelling can be of external origin where gas is brought into galaxies by me… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Diagram of key spatial scales tied to AGN feeding and feedback (reproduced from Gaspari et al., 2020, review): the circum-nuclear and galactic (meso-scales) and the circum-galactic (macro-scales). 1.3 Multi-phase AGN feedback Several observations have shown that all gas phases (cold neutral atomic, molecular and hot￾ionised) of the ISM are involved in AGN feedback phenomena and span a very broad range of p… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Left Panel: ATCA 1.4 GHz radio continuum image of IC 5063 (source on the left) superposed on a DSS image. Contour levels range from 2.5 mJy beam−1 to 1.16 Jy beam−1 , in steps of a factor 1.5. Right Panel: Position velocity diagram taken along the major axis (PA 120◦ ) of the disk of IC 5063 (Figures 2 and 5 of Morganti et al., 1998). ALMA and MUSE observations overcame these limitations enabling the high … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Top Left Panel: Unconvolved 8 GHz simulated surface brightness profile of a jet with power similar to IC 5063 expanding through a galactic disk after 1.49 Myr. Top Right Panel: Image on the left convolved with a beam of size 234 × 234 pc, as the VLA observations. Bottom Left Panel: PV diagram along the jet axis of IC 5063 of the CO (1 − 0) observed by ALMA. Contour levels are -71.25 (dashed), 71.25 (1.5𝜎),… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Sensitivity vs. resolution of H i observations of nearby AGN. The black lines and markers show previous H i observations. Orange markers and lines show MeerKAT observations of nearby AGN illustrated in this chapter (Fornax A, NGC3100 NGC 1371 Maccagni et al., 2020; Veronese et al., 2025), along with other deep MeerKAT observations shown in green. The MeerKAT observations extend two orders of magnitude into… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Flux-density H i emission (in orange) detected by MeerKAT, overlaid with a 20’ inset of the deep (27 mag arcsec−2 ) g,r optical image from VEGAS (Maccagni et al., 2023). The H i emission is a composite of flux-density maps derived from the multi-resolution datacubes between 10′′ (red) and 92′′ (yellow-green). A ‘dark’ 300 kpc-long H i filament connects the circum-nuclear regions of NGC 3100 with its turbul… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Left Panel: HST image of the centre of NGC3100 with ALMA CO(2–1) intensity contours, and radio continuum contours from JVLA data at 10 GHz (Ruffa et al., 2019b). Centre Panel: Kinematical absorption model of the H i disk oriented as the molecular gas disk which best reproduces the HI absorption line detected by ATCA, shown in the right panel. Right Panel: H i absorption detected in the centre of NGC3100 by… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Multiwavelength image of NGC 1371. The background shows the combined gzri optical image from Dark Energy Camera Legacy Survey (DECaLS, Dey et al., 2019). The MeerKAT high-resolution 1.4 GHz radio continuum is shown in yellow and red. The UV emission as observed by GALEX is overlaid in pink. The multi-resolution H i from the MHOONGOOSE observations is given in green and blue. The box in the bottom right cor… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Sensitivity vs. resolution of H i observations of nearby AGN reached by SKA-Mid AA∗ and AA4 in six and ten hours of observation, respectively. The AA4 array configuration will allow us to observe the diffuse (≲ 5 × 1019 cm−2 ) H i in Fornax A (20.9 Mpc) at kilo-parsec resolution, and explore the new parameter space of H i ∼ 6 × 1018 cm−2 with 2-kpc resolution. scales in a representative sample (∼ 1000) of … view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Left Panel: H i column density map extracted from a simulation of CCA rain (Gaspari et al. 2017) in an environment similar to Fornax A (same 𝑀★, SMBH and 𝑀ISM). The purple contour marks the 0.8 M⊙pc−2 level, corresponding to an H i column density of 1020cm−2 .Right panel: Multi-resolution (10” and 20”, colored and grey contours, respectively) H i surface brightness map processed from the synthetic 10 hour… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Jet-ISM interaction. The top panels (from Girdhar et al., 2022) show the impact of small-scale jets on the ISM as observed in a 𝑧 = 0.15 type-2 quasar. The velocity line width (W80) of the ionized gas (second panel) and cold molecular gas (fourth panel) trace regions of high dispersion (purple spaxels) orthogonally to the jet axis (black contours). The bottom panels (Meenakshi et al., 2022) show the predi… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Top Left Panel: Simulation of 300 MHz synchrotron surface brightness produced by the expansion of a low-power jet through a clumpy medium (courtesy of D. Mukherjee). This simulation replicates the radio jets and lobes of IC 5063 (Morganti et al., 1998; Oosterloo et al., 2000; Mukherjee et al., 2018). Top Centre Panel: Synthetic observation with 10hrs of SKA-Low-AA4 at 300 MHz with a 85MHz bandwidth of the… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Left Panel: Simulation of 1.4 GHz synchrotron surface brightness as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p024_13.png] view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: shows that a large fraction (≥ 50%) of the radio AGN that the SKA-Mid will detect with 1 hour observations at a 5𝜎 significance (𝑆1.4GHz ≳ 10𝜇Jy) are resolved up to redshift 5 (i.e. their size is larger than 1 arcsec). Between 𝑧 = 0.1 and 𝑧 = 1 it will be possible to perform resolved studies of the jet-ISM interaction in low and moderate power AGN (1021−23 W Hz−1 ), typically hosted by main sequence galax… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) are key drivers of galaxy evolution, triggered by cold gas accreting onto a super-massive black hole. However, the processes regulating this gas accretion (feeding) and how AGN alter the interstellar medium to affect star formation (feedback) remain poorly understood. A major observational challenge is the vast range of spatial scales involved: AGN fuelling and jet-ejection occur over the sub-pc scales, while AGN feedback shocks and heats the ISM preventing star formation over the galactic and circum-galactic scales. Moreover, it is unclear how short stochastic AGN episodes are connected with the long timescales of gas accretion and star formation. In this manuscript, we illustrate how SKAO will provide the unprecedented opportunity to solve the observational limitations of AGN feeding and feedback studies by observing hundreds of nearby AGN down to low radio powers ($10^{21}$ W Hz$^{-1}$). Simultaneous SKA-Low and Mid observations of nearby galaxies will trace the thermal emission associated with star formation and AGN feedback and the synchrotron emission of their jets of relativistic plasma. These broad-band radio observations enable the detailed characterisation of the AGN duty-cycle, unravelling the time-scales of the nuclear activities. Reaching in 10 hours neutral atomic hydrogen (HI) column density sensitivities $\sim 10^{19}$ cm$^{-2}$ at arcsecond resolution, SKA AA4 observations will trace the typical low column density of HI gas in AGN inflows and outflows, to understand the impact AGN feedback over the full galaxy and trace fuelling processes from the environment onto the SMBH. Combining SKA with mm, sub-mm and optical Integral Field Spectrographic observations at comparable arcsecond resolution will provide an exhaustive understanding of the link between multi-phase AGN feeding and feedback processes and star formation.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents a science case for the Square Kilometre Array Observatory (SKAO) in studying AGN feeding and feedback across galactic scales. It argues that SKAO will overcome current observational limits by enabling observations of hundreds of nearby AGN down to radio powers of 10^{21} W Hz^{-1}, simultaneous SKA-Low and Mid broadband observations to trace star formation, AGN feedback, and jets, and HI column density sensitivities of ~10^{19} cm^{-2} at arcsecond resolution in 10 hours. These capabilities, combined with multi-wavelength data, are claimed to connect short AGN episodes to longer gas accretion and star formation timescales.

Significance. If the projected SKAO performance metrics are realized, the paper outlines a pathway to address the multi-scale disconnect in AGN studies, potentially allowing direct tracing of low-column-density HI in inflows/outflows and characterization of AGN duty cycles. This is a useful forward-looking contribution for facility planning in galaxy evolution research, though the manuscript itself contains no new derivations or data.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The specific performance claims (HI sensitivity ~10^{19} cm^{-2} at arcsecond resolution in 10 hours; hundreds of AGN observable to 10^{21} W Hz^{-1}) are stated without any supporting calculations, error budgets, integration-time derivations, or citations to SKAO design documents. These numbers are load-bearing for the central thesis that SKAO solves the observational limitations.
  2. [SKA capabilities and multi-phase combination paragraphs] Paragraphs on SKA capabilities and multi-phase combination: The assertion that simultaneous Low/Mid observations plus arcsecond HI mapping will 'directly trace the typical low column density of HI gas in AGN inflows and outflows' and connect stochastic episodes to star-formation timescales is presented without quantitative discussion of kinematic discrimination, confusion limits, or how the data will distinguish feeding from feedback processes.
minor comments (2)
  1. The abstract contains several long, compound sentences that reduce readability; splitting them would improve clarity.
  2. A short table summarizing the key SKAO specifications cited (sensitivities, resolutions, frequencies) with references would help readers quickly assess the claims.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive review. The comments correctly identify that the performance metrics and observational assertions require better anchoring in the literature. We have revised the manuscript to address both points while preserving its character as a forward-looking science case.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The specific performance claims (HI sensitivity ~10^{19} cm^{-2} at arcsecond resolution in 10 hours; hundreds of AGN observable to 10^{21} W Hz^{-1}) are stated without any supporting calculations, error budgets, integration-time derivations, or citations to SKAO design documents. These numbers are load-bearing for the central thesis that SKAO solves the observational limitations.

    Authors: We agree that the quoted figures require explicit support. In the revised version we add citations to the SKAO1 System Baseline Design (SKA-TEL-SKO-0000002) and the SKA1 Science Performance documents, together with a short paragraph deriving the 10-hour HI column-density sensitivity from the standard radiometer equation using the AA4 array parameters and a 1-arcsec beam. The estimate of hundreds of AGN is now referenced to the expected SKA-Mid continuum survey depth and the local radio luminosity function from Best & Heckman (2012). These additions are confined to one new paragraph and two references so that the high-level nature of the paper is retained. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [SKA capabilities and multi-phase combination paragraphs] Paragraphs on SKA capabilities and multi-phase combination: The assertion that simultaneous Low/Mid observations plus arcsecond HI mapping will 'directly trace the typical low column density of HI gas in AGN inflows and outflows' and connect stochastic episodes to star-formation timescales is presented without quantitative discussion of kinematic discrimination, confusion limits, or how the data will distinguish feeding from feedback processes.

    Authors: The manuscript is a science-case overview rather than a technical simulation study; therefore a full quantitative treatment of confusion limits and kinematic separation lies outside its scope. Nevertheless, we accept that a brief discussion of the practical steps is warranted. The revised text now includes a short paragraph noting that (i) spectral-index separation between synchrotron jets and thermal star-formation emission is enabled by the simultaneous Low/Mid bands, (ii) kinematic discrimination of inflows versus outflows will rely on the combination with optical IFU data at matched resolution (as already demonstrated in existing PHANGS and ALMA studies), and (iii) the arcsecond HI sensitivity is sufficient to reach the column densities reported in the literature for AGN-driven outflows. We do not claim that SKAO data alone will fully separate feeding from feedback; the multi-wavelength synergy is emphasised. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; purely descriptive science-case paper

full rationale

The manuscript enumerates expected SKAO performance metrics and sketches their application to AGN feeding/feedback studies. No derivations, equations, parameter fits, or predictions that reduce to prior fitted quantities are present. Central statements are conditional on instrument capabilities lying outside the paper. No self-citation chains or ansatzes are invoked as load-bearing steps. The text is self-contained against external benchmarks of future telescope performance.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

The manuscript is an observational science case and introduces no free parameters, mathematical axioms, or new physical entities; all content concerns projected telescope capabilities.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5901 in / 1199 out tokens · 46194 ms · 2026-07-01T04:07:26.468386+00:00 · methodology

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Reference graph

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