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REVIEW 3 major objections 4 minor 135 references

Ultra-deep imaging of IC 1101 shows its main stellar body ends at 260 kpc along the major axis, enclosing about 3.4 × 10^12 solar masses in stars, making it the largest galaxy with a measured edge.

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2026-08-01 23:37 UTC pith:OAKQFFPJ

load-bearing objection IC 1101's 260-kpc 'edge' is a well-motivated but framework-dependent boundary; the paper is careful, reproducible, and worth refereeing. the 3 major comments →

arxiv 2607.15340 v1 pith:OAKQFFPJ submitted 2026-07-16 astro-ph.GA

How large can galaxies be? Ultra-deep imaging of IC 1101, the most extended known galaxy

Carlos Marrero-de la Rosa , Ignacio Trujillo , Ignacio Ruiz Cejudo , Mireia Montes , Fernando Buitrago , Giulia Golini , Sergio Guerra Arencibia , Andr\'es Asensio Ramos
show 7 more authors
Ra\'ul Infante-Sainz Adriana de Lorenzo-C\'aceres Jairo M\'endez-Abreu Samane Raji Javier Rom\'an Manuel S\'anchez-Benavente Zahra Sharbaf
This is my paper
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords galaxies: individual: IC 1101brightest cluster galaxiesgalaxy edgesintracluster lightmass–size relationlow surface brightness imaging
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal T4 reserved

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper asks how large a galaxy can be, using IC 1101, the central galaxy of the Abell 2029 cluster, as the most extreme test case. With ultra-deep g- and r-band images reaching about 30 mag arcsec^-2, after careful subtraction of scattered light from stars and the galaxy's own wings, the authors identify a simultaneous transition in shape, colour, and stellar mass density at 260 kpc along the major axis. They interpret this as the edge of the galaxy's main stellar body, enclosing about 3.4 × 10^12 solar masses, and measure a projected diameter of about 520 kpc. If correct, IC 1101 becomes the largest galaxy with a measured boundary, and the faint outer features show that its outskirts are still assembling. The result would anchor the upper end of the galaxy mass–size relation with a direct measurement rather than an extrapolation.

Core claim

The paper's central claim is that the main stellar body of IC 1101 has a measurable edge at Redge = 260 ± 38 kpc along the semi-major axis, where the ellipticity drops, the position angle swings, and the colour, surface brightness, and stellar mass density all change coherently. This edge encloses about 3.4 × 10^12 solar masses in stars; with a projected diameter near 520 kpc, IC 1101 would be the largest galaxy with a confirmed boundary. Beyond 260 kpc the light becomes rounder and asymmetric, and two further transitions at roughly 475 kpc and 620 kpc mark the transition from the galaxy's envelope into diffuse intracluster light and finally to infalling material. The paper also reports irre

What carries the argument

The central tool is the edge radius Redge, defined as the innermost radius at which the galaxy's structural and photometric properties change together: a drop in ellipticity, a position-angle swing, and coherent variations in colour, surface brightness, and stellar mass surface density. It is measured from ultra-deep g- and r-band images after constructing an extended PSF, subtracting scattered light from both stars and the galaxy's own wings, and applying a hybrid wavelet-based deconvolution. The same profiles provide cross-checks through the effective radius Re = 73 ± 2 kpc and the R1 radius, where R1 is the radius at which the stellar mass density falls to 1 solar mass per square parsec,

Load-bearing premise

The load-bearing premise is that the simultaneous structural transition at about 260 kpc marks the physical edge of the galaxy's main stellar body, not merely a change inside a continuous BCG-plus-intracluster-light envelope or an artifact of the PSF and background corrections; the paper itself adopts this transition after identifying four candidate radii.

What would settle it

A test would be to search for planetary nebulae or resolved red-giant stars beyond 260 kpc whose radial velocities and luminosity function match the galaxy's gravitational potential and stellar population rather than the cluster's intracluster light. If such stars are found in abundance outside 260 kpc, or if an independent deep image with a different PSF and background treatment does not recover a clear transition at about 260 kpc, the edge claim would be refuted.

Watch this falsifier — get emailed when new claim-graph text bears on it.

If this is right

  • If the edge is real, IC 1101 sits at the extreme upper end of the galaxy mass–size relation, extending it to the largest edge radius measured for any galaxy to date.
  • The measured stellar mass within Redge, about 3.4 × 10^12 solar masses, and within 620 kpc, about 4.2 × 10^12 solar masses, quantifies how much of the system's stars lie in the main body versus the diffuse envelope and intracluster light.
  • The correspondence between faint optical structures and X-ray sloshing residuals implies that the galaxy's outskirts are still being assembled through ongoing accretion, so its spatial extent is still growing.
  • The three outer structural transitions at roughly 146, 475, and 620 kpc provide a radial sequence from the relaxed main body to the diffuse BCG-plus-intracluster-light envelope to recently infalling material.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The paper itself identifies four transitions and adopts the 260-kpc one as fiducial; a dynamical test, such as measuring velocities of planetary nebulae or resolved stars just inside and outside that radius, would show whether the edge is a true physical boundary or a convenient definitional choice.
  • If the 260-kpc edge is physical, the intracluster light in Abell 2029 effectively begins unusually close to the galaxy's centre, making this system a clean laboratory for separating the BCG and intracluster light components in simulations of cluster formation.
  • The same hybrid PSF-and-wavelet correction could be applied to other brightest cluster galaxies; a systematic survey would convert the upper envelope of galaxy sizes from an extrapolated relation into a set of directly measured edges.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 4 minor

Summary. Using ultra-deep INT/WFC g- and r-band imaging (reaching ~30 mag arcsec−2), the paper constructs an extended PSF, subtracts the scattered-light halos of foreground stars, and applies a wavelet-based deconvolution to IC 1101. The authors then analyze free-ellipse isophote profiles and wedge-based major-axis profiles of surface brightness, colour, stellar-mass density, ellipticity, position angle, and B4. They identify four radial transitions at ~146, ~260, ~475, and ~620 kpc and adopt the 260-kpc transition as the edge radius Redge of the main stellar body. This yields Redge = 260 ± 38 kpc, a projected diameter of ~520 kpc, an enclosed stellar mass of 3.36 × 10^12 M_sun within Redge, R1 = 362 ± 38 kpc, Re = 73 ± 2 kpc, and a total stellar mass of 4.2 × 10^12 M_sun within the radius where the g-band surface brightness reaches 29 mag arcsec−2. The galaxy is placed on the TCK20/CTK22 mass–size relations, and the detected low-surface-brightness features are compared with X-ray residuals from Abell 2029.

Significance. If the central claim is correct, this is the largest main-body diameter measured for any galaxy and provides a strong constraint on the upper end of the mass–size relation and on BCG/ICL separation. The paper's genuine strengths are the very deep data, the explicit extended-PSF construction, the careful foreground-star subtraction, the publicly available software, and an explicit background-driven error budget for the size indicators. These make the measurement credible as a characterization of the low-surface-brightness envelope. However, the headline edge radius is an adopted transition among four candidates identified in the same corrected profiles, and the quoted uncertainty does not include that selection ambiguity or the systematic effects of the PSF-wing extrapolation and wavelet regularization. The claim is therefore not yet as secure as the abstract implies.

major comments (3)
  1. [Sec. 4 and Fig. 5; Sec. 5] The central claim rests on choosing 260 kpc as the edge among four transitions (146, 260, 475, and 620 kpc) identified in the same corrected profiles. The text states that the 260-kpc feature is 'adopted' because it is the 'most robust' and shows simultaneous changes in ellipticity, PA, colour, and profile slopes, but no quantitative criterion is given (no significance of the break, no model comparison, no threshold in Σ⋆ or gradient change). The quoted uncertainty Redge = 260 ± 38 kpc is propagated only from background fluctuations and M/L normalization; it does not include the choice among the four candidate radii. Since adopting 146 kpc or 475 kpc would change the claimed diameter from ~292 kpc to ~950 kpc, the headline 'largest galaxy' claim is not robust to this definitional freedom. The fact that Σ⋆(Redge) = 2.4 M_sun pc−2 is larger than the 1 M_sun pc−2 threshold defining R1 furth
  2. [Sec. 3.2 and Apps. C/E/F; Sec. 5] Systematic errors in the corrected low-surface-brightness profiles are not propagated to sizes and masses. The PSF wings are extrapolated as I(r) ∝ r^α with α_g = −2.5 ± 0.1 and α_r = −2.7 ± 0.3 (Appendix C), using an external star observed at a different epoch, and the wavelet deconvolution uses regularization weights fixed empirically (Appendix E). The text states that the PSF-scattered-light correction changes the profile by only ~0.05–0.1 mag (Appendix F), but this is reported after the fact and is not translated into an uncertainty on Redge, R1, Re, or the enclosed masses. Because the edge and mass claims concern emission at μ ≈ 29–30 mag arcsec−2, a sensitivity test varying α by its quoted errors and the wavelet weights over a reasonable range should be included, or a systematic term should be added to the size and mass errors.
  3. [Sec. 6 and Figs. 7–8] The consistency checks do not independently validate the adopted edge. Agreement with the TCK20/CTK22 scaling relations and the R1–Redge relation is not an external test, because the comparison sample and IC 1101 use the same definitions and fitting framework; a galaxy placed on these relations by construction cannot validate the choice of Redge = 260 kpc. The discussion would be stronger with an independent dynamical or theoretical criterion (e.g., comparison with simulated BCG/ICL decompositions, stellar radial-velocity or globular-cluster kinematics, or an explicit ICL decomposition) to support the claim that the 260-kpc transition is the boundary of the main stellar body rather than a transition within the BCG+ICL envelope.
minor comments (4)
  1. [Sec. 6 and Appendix G] The text and Fig. G.1 quote 'Redge = 270 kpc' and list the inner transition as 150 kpc, while the fiducial values elsewhere are 260 kpc and 146 kpc. Please harmonize the numbers.
  2. [Sec. 5 and Sec. 6] The enclosed-mass values are inconsistent: Sec. 5 gives M(<260 kpc) = 3.36 × 10^12 M_sun and M(<475 kpc) = 3.91 × 10^12 M_sun, but Sec. 6 states that the mass at Redge = 260 kpc is 3.91 × 10^12 M_sun. Please correct.
  3. [Sec. 2] The observing dates are given as 'between 2730 May 2022', which appears malformed; please provide a valid date range.
  4. [Figs. 4–5 and Abstract] The label '4/acute.ts1' in Figs. 4/5 appears to be a text artifact. Also, the abstract's 'confirmed diameter of around 520 kpc' could be misleading because the diffuse envelope extends to ~620 kpc; consider qualifying this as the diameter of the adopted main stellar body.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity: Redge is a measured profile transition, not a fitted or self-citational prediction.

full rationale

The central claim—that IC 1101's main stellar body has an edge at Redge = 260 kpc—is derived from direct photometric measurements: surface-brightness, colour, stellar-mass-density, ellipticity, and position-angle profiles. No equation in the paper fits a parameter and then re-predicts that same parameter; there is no reduction of Redge to an input by construction. The adopted definition of 'edge' follows the framework of Trujillo et al. (2020) and Chamba et al. (2022), which are peer-reviewed empirical studies of galaxy profiles; citing them to interpret a newly measured transition is standard practice and not circular, since those works do not assume IC 1101's specific edge radius. The comparison of IC 1101 with scaling relations built from the same size definitions is a consistency check, not a derivation. The choice among four detected radial transitions (146, 260, 475, 620 kpc) is interpretive and could affect the headline claim, but that is a measurement-selection ambiguity rather than circular reasoning. Self-citations appear in the context of methodological tools and prior applications of the R1 metric, but they are not load-bearing in the sense of supplying the result itself. The paper is self-contained against external benchmarks in the sense that its size and mass measurements are direct observables-derived quantities, with uncertainties propagated from background and mass-to-light variations.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

4 free parameters · 4 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central measurement rests on interpreting a profile transition as an edge, on the accuracy of PSF-wing and wavelet corrections, and on literature calibrations for stellar mass. No new physical entities are postulated; 'Redge' is an operational size metric, not an entity.

free parameters (4)
  • PSF outer-wing power-law slopes (α_g, α_r) = α_g = −2.5 ± 0.1; α_r = −2.7 ± 0.3
    Fitted to PSF wings (Appendix C) and used to extrapolate the PSF to 2244 arcsec; errors in the wings directly affect scattered-light subtraction at the radii where the edge and outer features are measured.
  • Wavelet deconvolution regularization weights = λ_grad=1e-6, λ_obj=1e-2, λ_wave=1e-6, λ_1=1e-6, λ_IUWT=1e-2
    Chosen empirically (Appendix E) and kept fixed; they control how much faint structure is interpreted as PSF scattering and can change the LSB profile slopes used to define transitions.
  • Colour–M/L calibration (a_g, b_g) = a_g = −0.984, b_g = 2.029 (Roediger & Courteau 2015, Chabrier IMF)
    Used in Eqs. (2)–(3) to convert surface brightness and colour into stellar mass; the mass estimates and mass–size placement scale with this literature calibration.
  • Exponential model fitting window = 200″–300″ (≈305–458 kpc)
    Used in Appendix F to build the symmetric galaxy model for PSF-scattered-light subtraction; shifting this window changes the outer PSF correction and hence the outer profiles.
axioms (4)
  • domain assumption The 260-kpc transition marks the physical edge of the main stellar body of IC 1101.
    Section 4: 'We adopt the transition at ∼260 kpc as our fiducial estimate of the edge radius.' This is an interpretive assumption, not a derived result.
  • domain assumption IC 1101 has a largely virialised, coherent morphology suitable for defining a single edge.
    Section 1 describes selecting a BCG 'with a relatively coherent morphology, indicative of a largely virialised state'; if the system is still merging, no single edge exists.
  • domain assumption The Roediger & Courteau (2015) colour–M/L relation with Chabrier IMF holds in the galaxy outskirts.
    Eqs. (2)–(3) in Section 4; the stellar masses, R1, and mass–size placement depend on this calibration.
  • domain assumption PSF-wing and wavelet corrections do not create or erase the 260-kpc profile break.
    Sections 3.2–3.3 and Appendices E–F; the edge is measured in images after these corrections, and their systematics are not propagated into Redge.

pith-pipeline@v1.3.0-alltime-deepseek · 28751 in / 14608 out tokens · 146333 ms · 2026-08-01T23:37:53.878596+00:00 · methodology

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read the original abstract

The maximum physical extent that galaxies can reach is poorly understood. In this regard, IC 1101, one of the most extended and massive galaxies known, provides a valuable opportunity to constrain the upper limit of galaxy sizes at the present epoch. Previous deep imaging of the system confirmed its enormous extension, but did not indicate whether it has an edge. We explore this issue using the deepest images ever taken of this galaxy; ultra-deep g- and r- band imaging from the INT/WFC, reaching {\mu} = 30 mag arcsec^-2 (3{\sigma} in an area equivalent to 10 x 10 arcsec^2). We model and subtract the scattered light from both stars and the galaxy itself using an extended PSF characterization and a hybrid wavelet-based deconvolution. Using a combination of surface brightness, colour, and stellar mass density profiles oriented at different position angles, we find that the main body of IC 1101 extends to Redge = 260 kpc along the semi-major axis (assuming the redshift of Abell 2029, z = 0.077), enclosing 3.4 x 10^12 M_sun in stars. This Redge is among the largest edge radii measured for any galaxy to date, placing IC 1101 at the extreme upper end of the mass-size relation. In addition, we report a large number of asymmetrical, very low surface brightness features around the galaxy that are spatially consistent with the large-scale disturbances observed in the intracluster medium through X-ray studies of the Abell 2029 cluster, in which IC 1101 is embedded. With a confirmed diameter of around 520 kpc, IC 1101 stands as the largest galaxy known to date; yet, its outskirts show clear signatures of ongoing mass assembly, indicating that its spatial extent is still growing.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2607.15340 by Adriana de Lorenzo-C\'aceres, Andr\'es Asensio Ramos, Carlos Marrero-de la Rosa, Fernando Buitrago, Giulia Golini, Ignacio Ruiz Cejudo, Ignacio Trujillo, Jairo M\'endez-Abreu, Javier Rom\'an, Manuel S\'anchez-Benavente, Mireia Montes, Ra\'ul Infante-Sainz, Samane Raji, Sergio Guerra Arencibia, Zahra Sharbaf.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Comparison of colour-composite images of IC 1101 obtained from different imaging surveys. From left to right: SDSS DR16, the DESI Legacy Imaging Surveys DR9 based on DECaLS imaging, and the INT/WFC data presented in this work. In all cases, the colour images were constructed using the g- and r-bands. For a homogeneous visual comparison, all images were resampled to the plate scale of the INT observations (… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Radial profile of the extended PSF in the g- and r-bands, normal￾ized to unity, by dividing for the total flux. The different shaded regions highlight the radial intervals used to construct the PSF: Inner, Subinter￾mediate, Intermediate, Outer and Outer Ext. These regions correspond to different magnitude regimes used to characterize the PSF at various spatial scales. the outer PSF can vary with time (e.g.… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Colour composite image of IC 1101, based on the INT/WFC data presented in Sect. 2, after applying the star subtraction algo￾rithm. The image covers a field of view of approximately 28.1 ′ × 26.9 ′ . The image was created using the Sloan g- and r-bands and the astscript-color-faint-gray algorithm described in Infante-Sainz & Akhlaghi (2024). For the visualization of the background and diffuse light, the r-b… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Radial profiles of IC 1101 derived using photutils, allowing the ellipticity and position angle to vary freely with radius. The panels show the surface-brightness profiles in the g and r bands, the (g − r)0 colour profile, the stellar mass surface density profile, the B4 coefficient, the ellipticity, and the position angle. Vertical dashed lines mark the characteristic radii discussed in the text. The most… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Left panel: PSF deconvolved image of IC 1101 in the r band. A 4′ scale bar is shown, together with the wedge used to extract the major-axis profiles. Four characteristic radii, the first two based on the analysis of the profiles shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Two-dimensional maps of IC 1101 derived from the PSF decon￾volved INT/WFC imaging after correcting for Galactic extinction and cosmological surface-brightness dimming. Top panel: r-band surface brightness map, µr , in units of mag arcsec−2 . Middle panel: extinction￾corrected colour map (g−r)0. Bottom panel: stellar mass surface density map, expressed as log Σ⋆ in units of M⊙ pc−2 , obtained from the surfa… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Comparison between IC 1101 and galaxies from CTK22 (Chamba et al. 2022) and TCK20 (Trujillo et al. 2020) in four structural scaling relations. Top-left: stellar mass versus edge radius (Redge), compared to galaxies from CTK22. Top-right: stellar mass versus R1, using galaxies from TCK20. Bottom-left: stellar mass versus effective radius, Re , from TCK20. Bottom-right: stellar mass surface density at Redge,… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Relation between R1 and Redge. Grey points correspond to the CTK22 (Chamba et al. 2022) sample, while coloured circles denote early-type systems (E0–S0+ ) from the same sample. IC 1101 is high￾lighted with a red star. The dashed line shows the best-fitting relation derived for the E0–S0+ systems. The coloured shaded regions represent the uncertainty of this fit, with the darker band corresponding to the 1σ… view at source ↗

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