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Fates of Rotating Supergiants from Stellar Mergers and the Landscape of Transients upon Core-collapse

T0 review · 2 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-05 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read Blue supergiants forged in post-main-sequence binary mergers are viable progenitors of SN 1987A-like supernovae, ultra-long gamma-ray bursts, and a subset of fast luminous transients.

desk verdict A credible rotating-merger stellar grid whose transient landscape is a plausible but less-tested extension; worth a serious referee with a focus on the merger prescription and disk parameters. read the letter →

arxiv 2508.21116 v1 pith:Q25C24UA submitted 2025-08-28 astro-ph.HE astro-ph.SR

Daichi Tsuna (Caltech) , Jim Fuller (Caltech) , Wenbin Lu (UC Berkeley) This is my paper
classification astro-ph.HEastro-ph.SR
keywords bluesupergiantsstellarmergersrotationcore-collapsesupernovaeSN1987A-likeultra-longgamma-rayburstsfastopticaltransientsfallbackaccretion
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

Blue supergiants — hot, compact evolved stars — are hard to make in single-star evolution, but this paper argues they are made naturally when two stars in a binary merge after one leaves the main sequence, and that the deaths of these merged stars can account for several distinct classes of observed transients. The authors evolve 32 merger products in a one-dimensional stellar evolution code and find that mergers with mass ratio roughly 0.5–0.6 or higher die as blue supergiants whose outer envelopes are still rotating fast — faster for lower-mass products, whose weaker winds shed less angular momentum. If the neutrino-driven explosion succeeds, these stars die as SN 1987A-like supernovae with long-rising light curves, at roughly the observed rate; if it fails, the envelope falls back onto a newborn black hole and powers accretion-driven winds and jets that could appear as ultra-long gamma-ray bursts and as AT2018cow-like fast luminous transients. The central claim is that this single merger channel, at Large Magellanic Cloud-like metallicity, is a viable origin for all three classes.

What carries the argument

Three pieces carry the argument. (1) A one-dimensional merger prescription: when the expanded primary reaches 50 solar radii, the secondary's mass is added at 10^-2 solar masses per year carrying the full specific angular momentum of the binary orbit, j_acc = M1 sqrt(G R_*/(M1+M2)) (Eq. 2), with added gas set to the primary's surface entropy and composition. (2) An angular-momentum transport model based on the Tayler instability — magnetic field amplification that drives nearly rigid rotation in radiative zones — which fixes the rotation profile that survives to collapse. (3) A death criterion: comparing the envelope's specific angular momentum with j_ISCO (Eq. 9), the threshold for material

What would settle it

A three-dimensional hydrodynamic simulation of an early Case B merger at mass ratio q ≈ 0.5–0.8, checking whether the full orbital angular momentum of Eq. (2) is retained, how much of the secondary is actually kept, and whether helium-core material reaches the surface. Large deviations in any of these would shift or erase the mapped transient classes. Observationally, measuring a fast-rotating, helium/nitrogen-enriched envelope in a nearby SN 1987A-like progenitor would confirm the channel, while finding none in a sample of a dozen such events would cap its contribution to the observed rate.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

On the paper's own terms, the discovery is a connected set of fates. Post-main-sequence binaries that merge with mass ratio roughly M2/M1 ≳ 0.5–0.6 die as blue supergiants, not red supergiants, and retain much of the merger's orbital angular momentum in their radiative envelopes until core collapse; lower-mass products rotate faster because weaker winds shed less angular momentum. A successful neutrino-driven explosion produces a long-rising light curve of SN 1987A morphology, at an estimated rate (≈2–4% of core collapses) matching the observed fraction of such supernovae. A failed explosion makes the envelope fall back over 10^3–10^5 seconds, circularizing 0.1–several solar masses into an a

Load-bearing premise

The whole landscape rests on treating a post-main-sequence binary merger as one-dimensional rapid accretion of the secondary's mass onto the primary, with no mass lost, the added gas given the primary's surface composition, and the full orbital angular momentum of Eq. (2) retained — a picture that ignores the secondary's helium-rich core and merger dredge-up, which would change the envelope composition, the blue-supergiant threshold, and the rotation profile powering every di

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • A single route — post-main-sequence binary mergers at sub-solar metallicity — can populate the observed landscape from SN 1987A-like supernovae to ultra-long gamma-ray bursts to fast luminous transients, tying together classes usually modeled separately.
  • Fast-rotating blue supergiants can be produced at Large Magellanic Cloud-like metallicity, so ultra-long gamma-ray burst engines do not require the near-zero metallicities previously invoked.
  • Failed collapse of the lower-mass merger products sustains accretion at 10^-6–10^-3 solar masses per second for hours, and the resulting jets break out of the stellar envelope before they shut off, making these stars workable collapsar engines.
  • The channel's estimated rate (≈2–4% of core collapses) agrees with the observed fraction of 1987A-like supernovae, supporting the merger origin for that class.
  • High-mass (25 solar mass) merger products that fail to explode yield week-long, ~10^44 erg/s wind-driven transients with hydrogen, helium, fast asymmetric ejecta, and little nickel — the hallmarks of AT2018cow-like fast blue optical transients.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Because the one-dimensional prescription neglects the secondary's helium-rich core, a three-dimensional hydrodynamical simulation of an early Case B merger at q ≈ 0.5–0.8 is the cleanest test of whether the true blue-supergiant threshold and the retained angular momentum move; any shift there rescales all the quoted rates.
  • If late-stage LBV-like mass loss is as strong as radio observations of fast blue optical transients imply, it could strip the rotating envelope and quench the very accretion that powers them — a self-limiting tension that wind prescriptions for the final centuries could settle.
  • The predicted anti-correlation between black-hole spin and final black-hole mass offers a pathway to the massive, spinning black holes seen in gravitational-wave events, which hierarchical mergers struggle to produce.
  • The predicted cocoon flash (near-UV, ~10^42–10^43 erg/s, peaking days after jet breakout, detectable to z ≈ 0.2) is a discriminator: prompt ultraviolet follow-up of a nearby fast transient could tell a blue-supergiant collapsar from a magnetar-powered engine.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

2 major / 4 minor

Summary. The paper constructs a MESA grid of 32 rotating supergiant models from post-main-sequence binary mergers, spanning four primary masses (10–25 Msun) and accreted masses up to 0.8 M1, at LMC-like metallicity. The key findings are that larger accreted mass favors blue supergiants (BSGs) at core collapse, that BSGs retain rapidly rotating outer envelopes (with lower-mass BSGs rotating faster), and that these rotation profiles lead to a landscape of transients: successful neutrino-driven explosions produce 1987A-like SNe with long-rising light curves, while failed explosions produce fallback-driven disk winds and possibly relativistic jets, proposed as progenitors of ultra-long GRBs and AT2018cow-like fast luminous transients. The paper includes light-curve calculations with SNEC, an accretion-disk model from Fuller & Lu (2022), and a jet-breakout model, and compares the resulting surface rotation rates to observed LMC BSGs.

Significance. If the main claims hold, this is a valuable unification: a single binary-merger channel produces a diversity of core-collapse transients, from ordinary Type II-P SNe to 1987A-like SNe, ultra-long GRBs, and fast optical transients. The paper's strengths include the systematic 32-model grid, the comparison to observed LMC BSG rotation (which provides an external anchor), the explicit sensitivity study in Appendix B showing that final mass, radius, and Teff vary by about 10% under altered physics, and the qualitatively reasonable fit to the observed rate of 1987A-like SNe. The modeling is state-of-the-art in using MESA with modern AM transport, and the authors are candid about the limitations of their 1D merger prescription. However, the central transient predictions inherit several untested assumptions, as detailed below, so the significance will be fully realized only after those assumptions are shown to be benign or are appropriately bracketed.

major comments (2)
  1. [Section 2, Section 5, Appendix B] The merger is modeled as rapid accretion onto the primary at R* = 50 Rsun, with accreted material set to the primary's surface specific entropy and composition, no mass loss from the system, and jacc from Eq. (2). Section 5 explicitly concedes that this neglects the secondary's helium-rich core and dredge-up, which can affect envelope helium abundance and hence the BSG threshold. However, the sensitivity study in Appendix B varies merger radius, wind efficiency, AM transport scheme, and resolution, but not the entropy/composition structure of the accreted material. Since the final AM profile, and therefore the mass with j > jISCO (Table 1), directly controls Mcirc, Mdot, Ljet, and Lwind (Eqs. 14–16, Fig. 7), this untested variation is load-bearing. I request additional models (or a quantitative bounding argument) that vary the accreted material's entropy/composition, or include a He-rich
  2. [Section 4.2.1–4.2.2] The engine model adopts constant disk and jet parameters: theta_disk = 45 degrees, s = 0.5, eta_jet = 0.01, and Mej scaling from Ivanov & Fernandez (2021). No sensitivity tests or error bars are presented for any of these. The BH accretion rate (Eq. 16) and the wind/jet luminosities (Eqs. 14–15) scale directly with these choices; for instance, the disk mass is proportional to sin(theta_disk) ~ 0.7, and s determines the split between accretion and wind. Moreover, the jet efficiency eta_jet is taken from MAD simulations at accretion rates orders of magnitude higher than the 1e-6–1e-3 Msun/s rates in these models (Section 4.2.2). The identification of these models as viable ultra-long GRB and FBOT progenitors therefore needs either a parameter exploration or a clear statement of how the conclusions should be revised as these parameters vary.
minor comments (4)
  1. [Figure 6 caption] Typo: 'increaesd' should be 'increased'.
  2. [Section 1] Typo: 'throughtout' should be 'throughout' in the first paragraph.
  3. [Section 4.2.2] Missing space in 'thatthe' in the sentence 'If we assume thatthe efficiencies...'.
  4. [Table 1 and Figure 4] The notation 'Mj>jISCO,Sch' is used in the table, but the text sometimes refers to 'mass with j > jISCO'; please define consistently. Also, the gray region in Figure 4 would benefit from an explicit statement of the BH spin range that bounds it.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: transient predictions are forward-modeled from explicit merger assumptions and compared to external data, not fitted to target observables.

full rationale

The derivation chain is self-contained. Merger products are constructed in MESA by rapid accretion with an explicitly prescribed specific AM (Eq. 2), and the resulting BSG/RSG dichotomy and rotation profiles emerge from stellar-structure evolution, not from tuning to the transient classes the paper claims to explain. The rotation outputs are checked against external LMC observations of BSG surface rotation (Eq. 4), an independent comparison. The transient modeling uses SNEC for light curves and the Fuller & Lu (2022) one-zone disk model for failed-explosion accretion; both are published tools used as forward models, and neither encodes the paper's conclusions as an input. The self-citations to Fuller et al. (2019) and Fuller & Lu (2022) are used as physical prescriptions for AM transport and disk evolution, respectively, and are not invoked as a uniqueness theorem or as a substitute for derivation. No fitted parameter is renamed as a prediction: the model grid spans M1 and M2 without calibration to the target SNe, ultra-long GRBs, or FBOTs. The limitations admitted in Section 5—neglect of the secondary's helium-rich core and dredge-up—are honest caveats about physical realism and do not constitute circularity, since the predictions are not defined in terms of those neglected effects. Overall, the central claims are independent of the inputs by construction and rest on standard stellar-evolution and accretion-disk modeling.

Assumptions & free parameters 12 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central transient predictions rest on multiple adopted parameters, especially AM inheritance, disk opening angle, wind index, and jet efficiency. The stellar grid itself is better constrained and is checked against LMC BSG rotation rates.

free parameters (12)
  • ZAMS surface rotation = 20% of critical velocity (~100 km/s)
    Sets the initial AM content of all models; chosen to match LMC OB stars, not fitted to target transients.
  • Dutch wind efficiency (Dutch_scaling_factor) = 0.5
    Scales mass-loss rate and therefore final envelope rotation (Eqs. 6-8); varied by factor 2 in Appendix B, changing average AM by about 30%.
  • Semi-convection efficiency alpha_sc = 10
    Adopted from Schootemeijer et al. 2019; promotes blue solutions and affects the M2/M1 threshold for BSG formation.
  • Convective core overshoot (f, f0) = (0.02, 0.005)
    Standard MESA exponential overshoot parameters; affects core mass and post-main-sequence expansion.
  • Radius at onset of mass accretion = 50 R_sun
    Choice of when merger/accretion occurs; Appendix B shows final parameters vary within about 10% when changed to 30 or 100 R_sun.
  • Specific AM of accreted material jacc = about 7e19 cm2/s (Eq. 2)
    Assumes full orbital AM inheritance; directly sets envelope rotation and hence disk formation predictions.
  • Disk opening angle theta_disk = 45 degrees
    Adopted constant in the disk model; controls what fraction of fallback material reaches the disk. Not derived in this paper.
  • Disk wind index s = 0.5
    Assumed from recent simulations of radiatively inefficient accretion flows; enters wind luminosity and accretion rate.
  • Jet efficiency eta_jet = 0.01
    Assumed canonical value; jet power in Figure 7 scales linearly with it.
  • Neutrino-driven ejected mass Mej scaling = 0.01 * xi_env^-1 M_sun
    Adopted from Ivanov & Fernandez 2021; sets initial fallback mass and disk onset timing.
  • 56Ni mass in SNEC explosions = 0.07 M_sun
    Fixed to the SN1987A-inferred value; affects absolute light-curve luminosity but not morphology.
  • 56Ni mixing fraction = 90% in mass
    Parameterized to mimic 3D mixing seen in CCSN simulations; unconstrained by the stellar models.
assumptions (6)
  • ad hoc to paper A post-main-sequence binary merger is represented by rapid accretion of the secondary's mass onto the primary with no mass loss from the system.
    Section 2; acknowledged simplification in Section 5, neglects secondary's core structure and dredge-up, which affect helium abundance and the BSG parameter space.
  • domain assumption The Fuller et al. 2019 angular momentum transport prescription, with parameters adopted from Fuller & Lu 2022, captures AM evolution in radiative zones.
    Section 2; not derived here; Appendix B shows alternative prescriptions change the average AM but not the qualitative conclusions.
  • domain assumption The one-zone disk model of Fuller & Lu 2022, with constant theta_disk = 45 degrees and s = 0.5, describes fallback accretion and wind/jet energetics.
    Section 4.2.1; ignores magnetic field and multidimensional structure, but is used as a standard collapsar model.
  • domain assumption Explosion outcomes are treated agnostically, and for the rate estimate a majority of BSGs are assumed to explode.
    Section 4; no core-collapse simulations are run; the authors note explodability is uncertain and depends on core structure.
  • ad hoc to paper Jet efficiency and BH spin-down results from magnetically arrested disk simulations apply at accretion rates several orders of magnitude lower than in long GRBs.
    Section 4.2.2: 'If we assume that the efficiencies for long GRBs similarly apply in our case' is a stated extrapolation.
  • domain assumption Statistical binary population assumptions for the rate estimate, including fbin = 50%, log-uniform separations, and flat mass ratio.
    Section 4.1.2; rates are taken from observational literature, not derived in this paper.

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Pith. "Pith review of Fates of Rotating Supergiants from Stellar Mergers and the Landscape of Transients upon Core-collapse." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/Q25C24UA

@misc{pith2026250821116,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Fates of Rotating Supergiants from Stellar Mergers and the Landscape of Transients upon Core-collapse},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/Q25C24UA}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2508.21116}
}
abstract

We present a grid of rotating supergiant models from post-main sequence binary merger products, constructed by the MESA stellar evolution code. We focus on the evolution of these stars until core-collapse, in addition to their rotation, which could influence their mass loss and explosion phenomenology. We find that (i) as in previous studies, larger mass gain by merger favors the production of blue supergiants (BSGs) over red supergiants, and (ii) merger products that end as BSGs at core collapse have rotating outer envelopes, with lower-mass BSGs having faster envelope rotation due to less wind mass loss. We model the expected transients from these BSGs upon core-collapse, considering cases where the neutrino-driven explosion is successful and unsuccessful. The successful explosions result in supernovae (SNe) with long-rising light curves of morphology similar to SN 1987A. Failed explosions of these BSGs result in envelope fallback of $\sim (0.1$- several) $~M_\odot$ over $10^3$-$10^5$ seconds that power strong ($10^{51}$-$10^{53}$ erg) accretion-driven outflows in winds and possibly jets, with relativistic jets (if formed) generally capable of breaking out of the BSG envelope. Our modeling points to these merger-origin BSGs as viable progenitors for SN 1987A-like SNe, ultra-long gamma-ray bursts, and some of the fast luminous transients found in high-cadence optical surveys.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2508.21116 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. — Evolution in the HR diagram for representative stellar models, with initial mass of 15 M⊙ in the left panel and 25 M⊙ in the right panel. Triangles denote the locations of the models at the middle of core helium burning (defined as when YHe = 0.5 in the center), and star symbols denote their locations at core carbon depletion where we expect them to remain until core-collapse. The tracks diverge where the star exp… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. — Evolution of the specific AM for two merger models in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. — Effective temperatures of the simulated 32 progenitors, in the middle of core helium burning and at core carbon depletion. Colors denote the logarithm of the effective temperature. The dashed lines of M2/M1 = 0.8 denote our adopted upper limit where mergers are expected to occur (e.g., Justham et al. 2014), and the dotted line of M2/M1 = 0.5 in the right panel shows the rough line separating the RSG/BSG population… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (9 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: — Final rotation profiles of the simulated 32 progenitors, with colors denoting M2/M1. Solid lines are those that end their lives as BSGs defined as log10(Teff,fin) > 3.9 (approximately A-type or hotter), and dashed lines are those that end as cooler supergiants. Gray …
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: — Stellar models on the HR diagram at the time of core carbon depletion. Sizes are larger for higher mass ratio M2/M1, and colors denote the mass-averaged AM (equation 5). Grey shaded regions in the top left show the empirical luminous blue variable (LBV) instability r…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: — Bolometric light curves for explosions of our merger models from SNEC (Morozova et al. 2015). Left panel shows stellar models with M1 = 15 M⊙ and varying M2, fixing Eej = 1051 erg. Right panel shows explosions of representative BSG models, also with increaesd Eej = 1…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: shows the accretion history onto the BH M˙ BH(t) from disk formation, when the first (innermost) infalling material circularizes around the BH’s ISCO. We find M˙ BH to be most sensitive to the primary mass, as expected from the large differences of the specific AM amon…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: — BH mass versus spin at the time of disk formation for the BSG models, with different markers indicating different values of M1. These parameters, particularly the spin, are likely to change by the subsequent disk evolution. Dashed curves show the corresponding BH rot…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: — Comparison between the jet duration (set by thresh￾old Ljet > 3 × 1047 erg s−1 ) and the time for jet to break out from the star, for the nine BSG models with M1 = 10, 15, 20 M⊙. The shaded region of tjet < tbo represents the regime where the relativistic jet is chok…
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: — Kinetic luminosity of the disk wind for the same BSG progenitors as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_10.png]
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: — Summary of the transient landscape expected from our stellar models, which diverge based on the primary mass M1, mass ratio of the merging stars M2/M1, and the outcome of the explosion at core-collapse (successful or failed SN). We also show the section where each o…
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: — Fractional difference in the stellar properties most relevant to our paper, for variations in the input physics. We have chosen the fiducial BSG model of M1 = 15 M⊙, M2 = 8 M⊙ that is used in other plots. ⟨jrot⟩, with larger radii at merger increasing the AM and lar…

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 5, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.