Pith. sign in

REVIEW 5 minor 26 references

The Amerigo Vespucci as a traveling laboratory for studying the cosmic-ray fluxes at sea level

T0 review · 0 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-07-11 · grok-4.5

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗ Review JSON

Pith's one-line read A shipboard scintillator finds sea-level cosmic-ray rate lowest near 7°N, about 16% below the rate at Trieste.

desk verdict Clean modern muon latitude survey on a single instrument; 16% effect and ~7°N minimum are solid, Forbush ratios check out, work is incremental but usable. read the letter →

arxiv 2607.04197 v1 pith:R5BM7YO7 submitted 2026-07-05 astro-ph.IM astro-ph.SRphysics.ins-det

Davide Cerasole , Federica Cuna , Gaia De Palma , Riccardo Di Tria , Leonardo Di Venere , Fabio Gargano , Mario Giliberti , Francesco Licciulli
show 8 more authors
Antonio Liguori Pierpaolo Loizzo Francesco Loparco Leonarda Lorusso Mario Nicola Mazziotta Giuliana Panzarini Roberta Pillera Davide Serini
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.IMastro-ph.SRphysics.ins-det PACS 96.50.S94.20.wq95.55.Vj
keywords cosmicrayssea-levelmuonrategeomagneticcutofflatitudeeffectForbushdecreaseplasticscintillatorAmerigoVespucci
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

A plastic-scintillator counter rode the Italian Navy tall ship Amerigo Vespucci from Darwin to Trieste (and then through the Mediterranean) and recorded the rate of secondary cosmic rays that reach the sea surface. Across latitudes from 15°S to 45°N the rate is lowest near geographic latitude 7°N—roughly 16% below the value measured at Trieste—exactly where the geomagnetic cutoff rigidity is highest. The same continuous record also registers seven Forbush decreases caused by solar coronal-mass ejections; the muon-sensitive drops are typically a factor of three smaller than the corresponding drops seen by a high-latitude neutron monitor. Because a single instrument operated under stable conditions for many months, the data set cleanly separates the slow geomagnetic latitude effect from the rapid solar-driven transients, confirming the classic latitude surveys of the mid-twentieth century with modern electronics and continuous environmental monitoring.

What carries the argument

The phenomenological rate model (Eq. 1) that multiplies a sum of Forbush-decrease templates (start times, rise and fall times fixed to the Oulu neutron-monitor fit) by either a simple latitude term L(λ)=1−α cos^γ(λ−λ0) or the Dorman cutoff function R(Rc)=1−exp(−A Rc^−k); the free amplitude parameters then isolate the geomagnetic latitude effect from solar modulation.

What would settle it

An independent continuous muon-rate measurement spanning the same 7°N–45°N corridor during a period of low solar activity that either recovers a 16% amplitude and λ0≈7.8°N or finds a statistically different minimum location or depth.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The sea-level cosmic-ray rate measured by a two-tile plastic scintillator on the Vespucci reaches its minimum near geographic latitude 7°N and is about 16% lower there than at Trieste (~45°N); the same data set also captures seven Forbush decreases whose amplitudes are typically a factor of three smaller than those recorded by the Oulu neutron monitor.

Load-bearing premise

The assumption that fixing the Forbush start, rise and fall times to the Oulu neutron-monitor values fully removes solar modulation so that the remaining latitude dependence is purely geomagnetic.

Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Signed reviews

No signed human review yet.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

0 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper reports sea-level cosmic-ray rates measured with a two-tile plastic scintillator coincidence detector installed on the Italian Navy tall ship Amerigo Vespucci. Data were collected from Darwin (Oct 2024) to Trieste (Mar 2025) over latitudes 15°S–45°N, then continued on the Mediterranean leg to Genova (Jun 2025). After inclination and barometric corrections, the lowest azimuth-averaged rate occurs near 7°N and is ~16% below the Trieste value. Seven Forbush decreases are identified by fixing start/rise/fall times to the independent Oulu neutron monitor and floating only amplitudes on the Vespucci data; muon amplitudes are typically a factor ~3 smaller than neutron-monitor amplitudes. The same latitude and Forbush patterns are recovered on the Mediterranean leg and with the independent ALBERT muon counter at Bari. Rates are also shown versus IGRF vertical cutoff rigidity and fitted with a Dorman function.

Significance. A continuous, single-instrument sea-level muon survey spanning a wide latitude range during Solar Cycle 25 maximum is rare and valuable. The work cleanly separates geomagnetic latitude effects from solar modulation by anchoring Forbush timing to an independent neutron monitor, recovers a CR-equator location (~7°N) consistent with historical surveys, and quantifies the weaker muon response relative to neutrons both for latitude and for Forbush events. Cross-checks with the Mediterranean leg and with ALBERT strengthen the observational claim. The data set is a useful modern reference for geomagnetic cutoff and solar-modulation studies.

minor comments (5)
  1. Methods, barometric coefficient: β = (1.52 ± 0.48) × 10^{-3} hPa^{-1} has a large relative uncertainty. A short statement on how this uncertainty propagates into the final rates (or into the 16% amplitude) would help the reader assess residual systematics.
  2. Eq. (3) and surrounding text: the latitude term is correctly described as phenomenological; a one-sentence note that it is used only for description (not for physical inference of cutoff) would further clarify its role relative to the Dorman fit of Eq. (5).
  3. Results, Mediterranean tour: the ~3% rate drop after relocating the detector in Trieste is attributed to additional overburden. A brief estimate of the material thickness or a comparison of the two positions would make this correction more transparent.
  4. Fig. 11 bottom panel: the Sense HAT vertical geomagnetic field shows a constant offset relative to IGRF. Mentioning that the offset does not affect the rate analysis (which uses IGRF cutoffs) would avoid reader confusion.
  5. Abstract and Introduction: a few minor typographical inconsistencies (e.g., spacing around degree symbols, “Thelowestrate”) should be cleaned in production.

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged · score 1.0 of 10

No significant circularity: observational latitude effect and Forbush amplitudes are measured data, not forced by construction; phenomenological fits are descriptive only.

  1. self citation load bearing [Mediterranean Tour section; Fig. 8 and surrounding text]
    "In Fig. 8 we also show the rate measured with the CR detector “ALBERT” [13] installed at the INFN Bari. In this case we find that the amplitude decrease coefficient associated to the Forbush event is of about 0.08, similar to the result achieved with the Vespucci data."

    ALBERT is the authors’ own portable muon counter (Pillera et al., ICRC 2023). Its use as a contemporaneous cross-check for the June 2025 Forbush amplitude is a minor self-citation. It is not load-bearing for the world-tour 16% latitude claim or the location of the minimum at ~7°N, which rest on the Vespucci data alone and on comparison with the independent Oulu NM.

full rationale

The central claims (minimum rate at ~7°N, ~16% lower than Trieste; seven Forbush decreases with amplitudes ~1/3 of Oulu NM) are direct measurements of the Vespucci scintillator rates after standard inclination and barometric corrections. Forbush start/rise/fall times are taken from the independent Oulu neutron monitor and held fixed while only amplitudes are floated on Vespucci data—an ordinary multi-instrument procedure that does not force the reported 16% latitude amplitude. The latitude term L(λ)=1−α cos^γ(λ−λ0) and the Dorman cutoff function are explicitly phenomenological fits to the same rates; they organize the data but are not presented as first-principles predictions. The Mediterranean leg and the independent ALBERT Bari counter recover consistent latitude and Forbush ratios, providing external cross-checks. Minor self-reference to ALBERT is not load-bearing. Residuals are Gaussian with zero mean. Score 1 reflects only the trivial self-citation of the authors’ own ALBERT instrument, which does not underwrite the primary result.

Assumptions & free parameters 7 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on standard geomagnetic and atmospheric physics plus a small set of free parameters introduced to describe the observed rate. No new physical entities are postulated. The phenomenological latitude and Dorman functions are ad-hoc functional forms fitted to the data; their parameters are therefore free. The IGRF model and the Oulu neutron-monitor time series are external domain inputs treated as given.

free parameters (7)
  • latitude amplitude α = 0.170 ± 0.001
    Fitted amplitude of the phenomenological latitude term (Eq. 3); best-fit value 0.170±0.001.
  • latitude of minimum λ0 = 7.80 ± 0.09 deg N
    Fitted geographic latitude of the rate minimum; best-fit 7.80±0.09°N.
  • latitude plateau exponent γ = 7.95 ± 0.16
    Fitted exponent controlling the width of the latitude plateau; best-fit 7.95±0.16.
  • Dorman A = 9.21 ± 0.22
    Amplitude parameter of the Dorman cutoff function (Eq. 5); best-fit 9.21±0.22.
  • Dorman k = 0.575 ± 0.007
    Exponent of the Dorman cutoff function; best-fit 0.575±0.007.
  • barometric coefficient β = (1.52 ± 0.48)×10^-3 hPa^-1
    Measured in Darwin before departure; used to correct all rates (Eq. 6).
  • Forbush amplitudes a_j (7 events) = range ~1.1% to ~4%
    Seven free amplitudes floated on the Vespucci data after fixing start/rise/fall times to Oulu.
assumptions (4)
  • domain assumption The geomagnetic field is adequately described by the IGRF model at epoch 2024.9 for computing vertical cutoff rigidities at 20 km altitude.
    Used to produce the cutoff map (Fig. 5) and the rate-versus-cutoff plot (Fig. 6).
  • domain assumption The Oulu neutron-monitor count rate provides an independent, latitude-independent monitor of solar modulation (Forbush decreases).
    Start times, rise times and fall times of the seven Forbush events are fixed to the Oulu fit before fitting Vespucci amplitudes.
  • domain assumption Secondary particles reaching sea level are predominantly muons (plus a reduced electron/positron fraction) whose rate is proportional to the primary flux above the local geomagnetic cutoff.
    Stated in the Introduction and Methods; underpins the interpretation of the scintillator coincidence rate as a proxy for primary CR intensity.
  • ad hoc to paper The phenomenological forms L(λ)=1-α cos^γ(λ-λ0) and the Dorman function adequately capture the latitude and cutoff dependence after Forbush subtraction.
    Explicitly introduced in Eqs. 3 and 5; the paper notes that the latitude term 'is just a phenomenological model … not based on any physical consideration.'

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of The Amerigo Vespucci as a traveling laboratory for studying the cosmic-ray fluxes at sea level." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/R5BM7YO7

@misc{pith2026260704197,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: The Amerigo Vespucci as a traveling laboratory for studying the cosmic-ray fluxes at sea level},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/R5BM7YO7}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2607.04197}
}
read the original abstract

We have installed and operated a plastic scintillator detector counter to measure the flux of cosmic radiation during the 2023-2025 tour of the historical vessel Amerigo Vespucci. The Vespucci is the oldest ship of the Italian Navy and serves as a training vessel for Navy cadets. During its tour, some experiments were hosted onboard the vessel, providing unique opportunities for scientists working in different fields. We installed our detector upon the Vespucci's departure from Darwin in early October 2024. The detector collected cosmic-ray data during the journey from Darwin to Trieste, where the worldwide tour ended in March 2025. After about one month of stop in Trieste, the ship continued its tour in the Mediterranean sea, and arrived in Genova on June 10, 2025. We performed measurements of the cosmic radiation reaching the sea level across a wide latitude range, from 15{\deg} S to about 45{\deg} N. The lowest rate (averaged over all azimuth angles) was measured at a geographic latitude of about 7{\deg} N, and was about 16% less than the highest value, which was measured at Trieste, the northernmost location of the journey. Latitude effects on the cosmic radiation flux at sea level are due to the quasi-dipole geomagnetic field configuration, tilted by an angle of about 11{\deg} with respect to Earth's rotational axis.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2607.04197 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Cosmic-ray rate map measured on board the Vespucci vessel [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Top panel: Cosmic-ray rates measured by the detector on board [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Cosmic-ray rates measured by the Oulu detector as a function of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_3.png] view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (9 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Distributions of fractional residual (in units of %) between the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_4.png]
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Vertical cutoff rigidity evaluated from the IGRF geomagnetic field [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_5.png]
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Cosmic-ray rate measured by the Vespucci detector as a function [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_6.png]
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Cosmic-ray rate map measured on board the Vespucci vessel during [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_7.png]
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Top panels: CR rates measured by the Oulu NM, by the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_8.png]
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Cosmic-ray rate measured by the Vespucci detector from Trieste [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_9.png]
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: The observed data rate are still fitted with the Dorman function in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_9.png]
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Left panel: the detector box installed on a desk in the Vespucci [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p019_10.png]
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Pressure, temperature and vertical geomagnetic field component [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p020_11.png]

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

26 extracted references

  1. [1]

    Navas et al

    S. Navas et al. Review of particle physics.Phys. Rev. D, 110(3):030001, 2024

    2024

  2. [2]

    Victor F. Hess. Über Beobachtungen der durchdringenden Strahlung bei sieben Freiballonfahrten.Phys. Z., 13:1084–1091, 1912

    1912

  3. [3]

    D. Pacini. Penetrating Radiation at the Surface of and in Water.Nuovo Cim., 8:93–100, 1912

    1912

  4. [4]

    C. D. Anderson. The Positive Electron.Phys. Rev., 43:491–494, 1933

    1933

  5. [5]

    Sur les trajectoires des corpuscules électrisés dans l’espace sous l’action du magnétisme terrestre, avec application aux aurores boréales.Arch

    Carl Störmer. Sur les trajectoires des corpuscules électrisés dans l’espace sous l’action du magnétisme terrestre, avec application aux aurores boréales.Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., 24:317–364, 1907

    1907

  6. [6]

    Sur les trajectoires des corpuscules électrisés dans l’espace

    Carl Störmer. Sur les trajectoires des corpuscules électrisés dans l’espace. Applications à l’aurore boréale et aux perturbations magnétiques.Radium (Paris), 4(1):2–5, 1907

    1907

  7. [7]

    J. Clay. Penetrating radiation ii.Proc. R. Acad. Amsterdam, 30:1115– 1127, 1927

    1927

  8. [8]

    J. Clay. Penetrating radiation ii.Proc. R. Acad. Amsterdam, 31:1091– 1097, 1928

    1928

Show all 26 references
  1. [9]

    Arthur H. Compton. A geographic study of cosmic rays.Phys. Rev., 43:387–403, Mar 1933

    1933

  2. [10]

    S. E. Forbush. On the effects in cosmic-ray intensity observed during the recent magnetic storm.Phys. Rev., 51:1108–1109, Jun 1937. [11]https://www.nmdb.com/

    1937

  3. [11]

    Mavromichalaki, A

    H. Mavromichalaki, A. Papaioannou, C. Sarlanis, G. Souvatzoglou, M. Gerontidou, C. Plainaki, M. Papailiou, G. Mariatos, and Nmdb Team. Establishing and Using the Real-Time Neutron Monitor Database (NMDB). In K. Tsinganos, D. Hatzidimitriou, and T. Matsakos, editors,9th Interna...

    2010

  4. [12]

    ALBERT: A Little Bar ExpeRimental Tracker, a portable cosmic ray telescope for outreach and teaching purposes.PoS, ICRC2023:1615, 2023

    Roberta Pillera et al. ALBERT: A Little Bar ExpeRimental Tracker, a portable cosmic ray telescope for outreach and teaching purposes.PoS, ICRC2023:1615, 2023

    2023

  5. [13]

    J. D. Hunter. Matplotlib: A 2d graphics environment.Computing in Science & Engineering, 9(3):90–95, 2007. [15]https://appel.nasa.gov/2024/10/30/solar-cycle-25-reaches-maximum/

    2007

  6. [14]

    Bondar, W.J

    P.Alken, E.Thébault, C.D.Beggan, H.Amit, J.Aubert, J.Baerenzung, T.N. Bondar, W.J. Brown, S. Califf, A. Chambodut, et al. International Geomagnetic Reference Field: the thirteenth generation.Earth, Planets and Space, 73(1):1–25, 2021

    2021

  7. [15]

    IAGA-VMOD/ppigrf: 2.0.0, 2024

    Karl M Laundal, Santiago Soler, Ashley Smith, Andreas S Skeidsvoll, Daniel Billett, and PB. IAGA-VMOD/ppigrf: 2.0.0, 2024

    2024

  8. [16]

    Dorman.Cosmic rays in magnetospheres of the earth and other planets, volume358ofAstrophysics and Space Science Library

    L. Dorman.Cosmic rays in magnetospheres of the earth and other planets, volume358ofAstrophysics and Space Science Library. Springer, 2009

    2009

  9. [17]

    Time variation of cosmic ray intensity in the antarctic region.Journal of geomagnetism and geoelectricity, 12(4):175–180, 1961

    Taiichi Kitamura and Masahiro Kodama. Time variation of cosmic ray intensity in the antarctic region.Journal of geomagnetism and geoelectricity, 12(4):175–180, 1961

    1961

  10. [18]

    M. Kodama. Latitude effect of cosmic ray nucleon and meson components at sea level.Il Nuovo Cimento (1955-1965), 8(2):283–284, Sep 1958

    1955

  11. [19]

    M. A. Pomerantz, A. E. Sandsteöm, and D. C. Rose. Shipboard neutron monitor determination of cosmic-ray equator.Il Nuovo Cimento (1955- 1965), 8(2):257–262, Sep 1958

    1955

  12. [20]

    D. C. Rose and J. Katzman. The geomagnetic latitude effect on the nucleon and meson component of cosmic rays at sea level.Canadian Journal of Physics, 34(1):1–19, 1956

    1956

  13. [21]

    Abbrescia et al

    M. Abbrescia et al. Measurement of the cosmic charged particle rate at sea level in the latitude range 35◦÷82 ◦ N with the PolarquEEEst experiment.Eur. Phys. J. C, 83(4):293, 2023

    2023

  14. [22]

    Nuntiyakul, P

    W. Nuntiyakul, P. Evenson, D. Ruffolo, A. Sáiz, J. W. Bieber, J. Clem, R. Pyle, M. L. Duldig, and J. E. Humble. Latitude Survey Investigation of Galactic Cosmic Ray Solar Modulation during 1994-2007.The Astrophysical Journal, 795(1):11, November 2014. 23

    1994

  15. [23]

    CharacterizationofSilicon Photomultipliers after proton irradiation up to 1014 neq/cm2.Nucl

    Anna Rita Altamura, Fabio Acerbi, Chiara Nociforo, Veronica Regazzoni, AlbertoMazzi, andAlbertoGola. CharacterizationofSilicon Photomultipliers after proton irradiation up to 1014 neq/cm2.Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, 1040:167284, 2022. [26]https://www.raspberrypi.com/products/ rasp...

    2022

  16. [24]

    Abbrescia et al

    M. Abbrescia et al. New high precision measurements of the cosmic charged particle rate beyond the Arctic Circle with the PolarquEEEst experiment.Eur. Phys. J. C, 80(7):665, 2020. [Erratum: Eur.Phys.J.C 80, 897 (2020)]

    2020

  17. [25]

    Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica Amsterdam, 1995

    Guido Van Rossum and Fred L Drake Jr.Python reference manual. Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica Amsterdam, 1995

    1995

  18. [26]

    Capitano di Vascello

    R. Brun and F. Rademakers. ROOT: An object oriented data analysis framework.Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, 389:81–86, 1997. 24 Acknowledgments This work was supported by an agreement between the INFN and the Italian Navy. The authors are very grateful to the Commander “Capitano di Va...

    1997

Pith tools

Reviewed July 11, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.