Pith. sign in

REVIEW 6 minor 6 cited by

Probing low-reheating scenarios with minimal freeze-in dark matter

T0 review · 0 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-08-11 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗ Review JSON

Pith's one-line read This paper argues that if the early universe reheated at or below the dark matter mass, the minimal freeze-in dark photon model requires a larger dark-visible coupling, which pushes it into the reach of next-generation direct detection…

desk verdict A careful, honest freeze-in calculation for non-instantaneous reheating; the main result holds up but is incremental, not groundbreaking. read the letter →

arxiv 2412.04550 v2 pith:RUTYKUSC submitted 2024-12-05 hep-ph

Nicolás Bernal , Chee Sheng Fong , Óscar Zapata This is my paper · ORCID
classification hep-ph
keywords freeze-indarkmatterphotonlowreheatingtemperaturedynamicsdirectdetectionkinationdominationFIMP
topics Dark Matter
open problems Dark Matter
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper argues that the minimal freeze-in dark matter model—a fermion of mass $m_\chi$ coupled to the standard model through a nearly massless dark photon—cannot be assessed without specifying the reheating history. When the reheating temperature $T_{\rm rh}$ is at or below $m_\chi$, production from the thermal plasma is Boltzmann suppressed, so reproducing the observed relic abundance requires a larger portal coupling $\kappa\equiv\epsilon e'/e$. That increase moves the model into parameter space already constrained by direct detection and largely reachable by next-generation experiments over the scanned range $10^{-2}\,\mathrm{MeV} \lesssim m_\chi \lesssim 10^3\,\mathrm{TeV}$. The paper quantifies this for instantaneous reheating, for a matter-dominated inflaton that decays with entropy injection, and for a kination-like phase, and finds that low-temperature reheating shifts the required coupling by orders of magnitude while full quantum statistics shift it by only a few percent.

What carries the argument

The central object is the minimal freeze-in dark photon model: a Dirac fermion $\chi$ carrying a dark $U(1)'$ charge, with a very light dark photon $A'$ that kinetically mixes with the standard-model hypercharge, characterized by the portal coupling $\kappa\equiv\epsilon e'/e$. The argument is carried by the freeze-in production rate $\langle\sigma v\rangle n_{\rm eq}^2$ integrated over a reheating era described by a power-law temperature profile $T(a)=T_{\rm rh}(a_{\rm rh}/a)^\alpha$ and a Hubble rate set by an inflaton equation of state $\omega$, with the maximal duration of reheating fixed by the CMB tensor-mode bound on the inflationary Hubble scale. That setup lets the yield be computed both during and after reheating, with quantum statistics included for all initial states, and lets the required $\kappa$ be compared with current and projected direct-detection bounds.

What would settle it

A null result from a direct-detection campaign whose sensitivity covers the full low-reheating band mapped here—electron-recoil searches across the MeV-to-GeV range and nuclear-recoil searches across the 10 GeV-to-TeV range—would rule out those reheating histories for minimal freeze-in dark matter, because the relic abundance would then require a coupling above the experimental bound.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that the coupling needed to fit $\Omega h^2\simeq 0.12$ is not a single function of $m_\chi$: for $T_{\rm rh}\gg m_\chi$ it follows the usual freeze-in curve, but for $T_{\rm rh}\lesssim m_\chi$ it rises steeply, because only the high-velocity tail of the standard-model bath has enough energy to create dark matter. The rise is mostly independent of the highest temperature reached during reheating, since the production is infrared-dominated with a cross section scaling as $1/T^2$; allowing $T_{\rm max}$ to vary from $T_{\rm rh}$ up to its maximum set by the CMB tensor-mode bound brackets the required coupling into a band. For a massive inflaton decaying with a constant width ($\omega=0$, $\alpha=3/8$), the band is narrow because the entropy released during reheating dilutes any dark matter produced early, while for kination ($\omega=\alpha=1$) the dominant effect is a faster expansion and only a modest rise in $\kappa$. In both cases the larger $\kappa$ demanded by low reheating makes the model more visible to electron- and nuclear-recoil searches, and the paper maps which parts of the $(m_\chi,\kappa)$ plane are already excluded and which lie within projected sensitivities.

Load-bearing premise

The calculation assumes the standard-model bath stays fully thermalized while its temperature falls as a single power law throughout reheating, so if actual reheating has a different thermal or expansion history, the required coupling curves and detection reach would shift.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • For $T_{\rm rh}\lesssim m_\chi$, the portal coupling required to fit the relic density rises steeply, moving the model into regions already bounded by nuclear and electron recoil searches.
  • In a matter-dominated reheating with a decaying inflaton, entropy injection dilutes early dark matter, so the required coupling stays close to the instantaneous-reheating value and the uncertainty band is narrow.
  • In a kination-like phase with no entropy injection, the required coupling is only slightly above the high-reheating curve, because the main new effect is the enhanced Hubble expansion.
  • The low-reheating enhancement extends the reach of next-generation direct detection to essentially the whole scanned mass range, while the range $m_\chi\lesssim3\times10^{-2}\,\mathrm{MeV}$ is already excluded by red-giant cooling.
  • Quantum statistical corrections change the required coupling by about 2--10\%, much less than the orders-of-magnitude shifts produced by low reheating.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Beyond the paper, the same infrared-dominated logic should apply to any freeze-in portal whose production peaks near $T\sim m_\chi$, so the strong enhancement of the required coupling for $T_{\rm rh}\lesssim m_\chi$ is likely a general feature rather than a peculiarity of the dark photon.
  • Beyond the paper, a detection in the low-reheating band would not by itself identify the reheating history; independent observables, such as the primordial gravitational-wave spectrum, would be needed to separate $\omega$, $\alpha$, and $T_{\rm rh}$.
  • Beyond the paper, the assumption that the standard-model bath is fully thermalized during reheating could be relaxed; computing freeze-in with non-thermal early distributions would show how much the required coupling curves shift.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Signed reviews

No signed human review yet.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

0 major / 6 minor

Summary. The paper studies the minimal freeze-in dark matter model, a Dirac fermion coupled to a very light dark photon through kinetic mixing, and asks how a non-instantaneous reheating phase changes the portal coupling κ required to reproduce the observed relic abundance Ωh²≈0.12. The reheating epoch is parameterized by the inflaton equation of state ω and the scaling exponent α of the SM bath temperature with scale factor (Eqs. 2.9 and 2.13), with the maximal possible duration bracketed by the BICEP/Keck bound on H_I (Eq. 2.14). The Boltzmann equation (3.2) is solved numerically with the FREEZEIN code, modified to include full quantum statistics for all initial states as described in Appendix A. The authors present results for instantaneous reheating, for a matter-dominated reheating phase (ω=0, α=3/8) with bands bracketing the duration, and for a kination-like phase (ω=α=1). The central finding is that for reheating temperatures Trh at or below the DM mass mχ, the required κ increases sharply, bringing the model into the reach of current and next-generation direct detection experiments.

Significance. If correct, the paper establishes that the reach of direct detection for freeze-in dark matter depends sensitively on the reheating history, and it provides a concrete, physically motivated framework for quantifying this dependence. The analysis has several notable strengths: the collision-term derivation in Appendix A is detailed and standard; the results are checked against Ref. [36] in the instantaneous-reheating limit; the treatment of the reheating duration explicitly brackets the uncertainty between the instantaneous case and the maximal-duration case allowed by the BICEP/Keck bound; and the conclusion that low-Trh scenarios require an increased κ is robust to the width of the bands shown in Fig. 3. The work is therefore a useful benchmark for interpreting future direct detection constraints in non-standard thermal histories.

minor comments (6)
  1. [Section 2.2, Eqs. (2.9) and (2.13)] The parameterization assumes a fully thermalized SM bath for all temperatures between T_max and T_rh. This should be stated explicitly, and a brief comment on the effect of incomplete thermalization at the earliest stages of reheating would be useful; the infrared-dominated production makes the impact modest, but the assumption is load-bearing for the precise κ(mχ) curves.
  2. [Section 3.2, Figures 3 and 4] The claim that the gray bands are 'generally narrow' is only supported visually. A quantitative statement of the fractional variation of κ across the band for representative masses and reheating temperatures would strengthen the argument that the results are insensitive to the duration of reheating.
  3. [Section 3 and Appendix A] The modified FREEZEIN code is not provided and no tabulated values of the κ(mχ) curves are given. Releasing the code or providing a data table for the representative cases would allow the central quantitative results to be reproduced by other groups.
  4. [Appendix A, Eq. (A.15)] The first line of Eq. (A.15) contains a typographical artifact: 'exy' should read 'e^{xy}' (or the exponential should be typeset explicitly). The current rendering makes the equation difficult to parse.
  5. [Section 2.1, Eq. (2.6) and footnote 1] The notation 'ϵ e′' used in the Introduction and in the sentence after Eq. (3.3) is not introduced as a combined quantity; the effective coupling κ ≡ ϵ e′/e is defined later. Using κ consistently from the beginning would avoid confusion.
  6. [Introduction, paragraph 4] The statement that 'the production is not sensitive to the highest temperature during reheating Tmax' should be qualified: it holds in the infrared-dominated regime where T_max ≫ mχ, but for mχ above T_max the production is Boltzmann suppressed and the dependence on T_max reappears.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the relic-density matching is an explicit fit and the direct-detection reach follows from an independent calculation.

full rationale

The derivation chain is self-contained: the paper assumes the dark-photon model of Eq. (2.1), the cosmological parameterization of Eqs. (2.9) and (2.13), solves the Boltzmann equation (3.2), and then finds the coupling kappa that satisfies the relic-density condition (3.3). This is explicitly an inversion for the required coupling, not a prediction of an independent quantity; the paper consistently labels it as the value 'required' to fit the observed abundance. The direct-detection reach is then computed from that fitted kappa using the same model's scattering rates, which is a standard and legitimate use of a fitted parameter rather than a circular round-trip. The T(a) and H(a) parameterization is attributed to Ref. [57], which includes one of the present authors, but the equations are stated explicitly and constitute a transparent modeling assumption, not an imported uniqueness theorem or a hidden ansatz; moreover, the central results are bracketed between instantaneous reheating and the maximal-duration case saturating the BICEP/Keck bound. No step of the derivation reduces by construction to its own input, and no load-bearing claim rests solely on a self-citation. Hence there is no significant circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 5 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The calculation introduces no new particles beyond the well-known dark photon plus Dirac fermion setup. The load-bearing free inputs are the reheating parameters (Trh, ω, α, Tmax) and the coupling κ that is fitted to the observed relic abundance; all quantitative outputs are derived from these.

free parameters (5)
  • portal coupling κ = 10^-12 to 10^-9 across figures
    Central result: chosen for each mχ so that the freeze-in yield reproduces Ωh² ≈ 0.12 (Eq. 3.3). It is an output of the calculation, but formally fitted to the observed relic density.
  • reheating temperature Trh = 10^-1 to 10^5 GeV in scans
    Free parameter of the cosmological model; scanned to show low- versus high-reheating behavior in Figs. 2-4.
  • inflaton equation of state ω = 0 (matter domination) and 1 (kination)
    Chosen by hand for the two studied scenarios; determines the Hubble evolution during reheating via Eq. (2.13).
  • temperature scaling exponent α = 3/8 for matter domination, 1 for kination
    Chosen by hand; controls the T(a) evolution during reheating via Eq. (2.9).
  • maximal SM temperature Tmax = Set by saturating the BICEP/Keck bound on H_I
    Used to maximize the reheating duration and define the lower bound of the gray bands in Figs. 3 and 4 (Eq. 2.14).
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption The SM bath is fully thermalized and its temperature evolves as a power law T(a)=Trh (arh/a)^α during reheating.
    Invoked in Eq. (2.9); the entire production scan assumes this scaling from Tmax down to Trh without modeling the thermalization mechanism.
  • domain assumption The inflaton has a constant equation of state ω during reheating, so ρφ ∝ a^{-3(1+ω)}.
    Invoked in Eq. (2.13) for H(a); a varying ω would change the Hubble rate and hence the freeze-in yield.
  • domain assumption Dark matter is produced solely by freeze-in from SM annihilations and decays, with negligible backreaction and negligible initial abundance.
    Used in Eq. (3.1); footnote 3 bounds the allowed inflaton branching into DM (Br ≲ 10^-4 mχ/100 GeV).
  • domain assumption The dark photon mass satisfies mγ' ≲ 10^-21 MeV so that production is equivalent to the massless dark photon limit.
    Sec. 2.1; avoids CMB constraints from resonant γ→γ' conversion and justifies using only κ and mχ as the relevant parameters.
  • domain assumption Trh > TBBN ≈ 4 MeV to preserve Big Bang nucleosynthesis.
    Sec. 2.2; the red regions in the figures are excluded by this bound.

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Probing low-reheating scenarios with minimal freeze-in dark matter." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/RUTYKUSC

@misc{pith2026241204550,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Probing low-reheating scenarios with minimal freeze-in dark matter},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/RUTYKUSC}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2412.04550}
}
abstract

The parameter space of freeze-in dark matter (DM) with mass $m_\chi$ through light dark photon (``minimal freeze-in DM'') is currently being probed by direct detection experiments through electron and nuclear recoil. Exploring the DM production in the mass range $10^{-2}~{\rm MeV} < m_\chi < 10^3$ TeV, we quantify the impact of quantum statistics and the reheating dynamics (beyond the instantaneous reheating approximation) on the DM production in the early universe, in particular, the dependence on the cosmic equation of state and the scaling of the temperature of the Standard Model bath during reheating. Special cases corresponding to matter-domination and kination are carefully studied. To fit the entire observed DM relic abundance, low-temperature reheating scenarios require an increase in the coupling between dark and visible sectors which, in turn, enhances the regions of the parameter space that are already tested and will be probed by next-generation direct detection experiments for diverse reheating scenarios.

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Forward citations

Cited by 6 Pith papers

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score. Full citation record

  1. MobileEgo Anywhere: Open Infrastructure for long horizon egocentric data on commodity hardware

    cs.CV 2026-05 unverdicted novelty 6.0 of 10

    MobileEgo Anywhere supplies an open mobile app, 200-hour long-form egocentric dataset, and processing pipeline that enables collection of persistent-state egocentric trajectories on commodity hardware for VLA and foun...

  2. Dark Matter Ultraviolet Freeze-in in General Reheating Scenarios

    hep-ph 2025-01 accept novelty 6.0 of 10

    The paper derives analytic dark matter freeze-in yields for arbitrary power-law reheating histories and maps the gravitational production parameter space.

  3. micrOMEGAs 7: Beyond standard cosmology

    hep-ph 2026-06 unverdicted novelty 5.0 of 10

    The micrOMEGAs dark-matter package now solves Boltzmann equations with user-defined expansion and entropy histories, adds sub-GeV hadronic annihilation, and updates CMB, dwarf-galaxy, LZ, and CMS constraints.

  4. Sterile Neutrino Dark Matter as a Probe of Inflationary Reheating

    hep-ph 2026-01 conditional novelty 5.0 of 10

    Inflaton decays during reheating can produce all of the observed sterile-neutrino dark matter with a branching ratio below 10^-4, evading X-ray bounds and making a future X-ray line a probe of the inflaton mass and re...

  5. Primordial Gravitational Waves from Phase Transitions during Reheating

    astro-ph.CO 2025-06 conditional novelty 5.0 of 10

    Phase transitions happening during reheating can produce gravitational-wave signals that are delayed, prolonged, and shifted in amplitude and frequency by orders of magnitude compared with standard cosmology.

  6. $Z'$-Mediated Dark Matter with Low-Temperature Reheating

    hep-ph 2024-12 accept novelty 4.0 of 10

    Low-temperature reheating shifts the relic-density contours of Z'-mediated dark matter so that WIMP and FIMP solutions merge and new regions become testable.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

133 extracted references · 2 canonical work pages · cited by 6 Pith papers

  1. [36]

    Boddy, K

    K.K. Boddy, K. Freese, G. Montefalcone and B. Shams Es Haghi,Minimal Dark Matter Freeze-in with Low Reheating Temperatures and Implications for Direct Detection, 2405.06226

    arXiv

  2. [1]

    Planck collaboration, Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters, Astron. Astrophys. 641 (2020) A6 [1807.06209]

    arXiv 2020

  3. [2]

    Arcadi, M

    G. Arcadi, M. Dutra, P. Ghosh, M. Lindner, Y. Mambrini, M. Pierre et al.,The waning of the WIMP? A review of models, searches, and constraints, Eur. Phys. J. C78 (2018) 203 [1703.07364]

    arXiv 2018

  4. [3]

    Roszkowski, E.M

    L. Roszkowski, E.M. Sessolo and S. Trojanowski,WIMP dark matter candidates and searches—current status and future prospects, Rept. Prog. Phys.81 (2018) 066201 [1707.06277]

    arXiv 2018

  5. [4]

    Arcadi, D

    G. Arcadi, D. Cabo-Almeida, M. Dutra, P. Ghosh, M. Lindner, Y. Mambrini et al.,The Waning of the WIMP: Endgame?, 2403.15860

    arXiv

  6. [5]

    McDonald,Thermally generated gauge singlet scalars as selfinteracting dark matter, Phys

    J. McDonald,Thermally generated gauge singlet scalars as selfinteracting dark matter, Phys. Rev. Lett.88 (2002) 091304 [hep-ph/0106249]

    arXiv 2002

  7. [6]

    Choi and L

    K.-Y. Choi and L. Roszkowski,E-WIMPs, AIP Conf. Proc.805 (2005) 30 [hep-ph/0511003]

    arXiv 2005

  8. [7]

    Kusenko,Sterile neutrinos, dark matter, and the pulsar velocities in models with a Higgs singlet, Phys

    A. Kusenko,Sterile neutrinos, dark matter, and the pulsar velocities in models with a Higgs singlet, Phys. Rev. Lett.97 (2006) 241301 [hep-ph/0609081]

    arXiv 2006

Show all 133 references
  1. [8]

    Petraki and A

    K. Petraki and A. Kusenko,Dark-matter sterile neutrinos in models with a gauge singlet in the Higgs sector, Phys. Rev. D77 (2008) 065014 [0711.4646]

    2008 arXiv

  2. [9]

    L.J. Hall, K. Jedamzik, J. March-Russell and S.M. West,Freeze-In Production of FIMP Dark Matter, JHEP 03 (2010) 080 [0911.1120]

    2010 arXiv

  3. [10]

    Elahi, C

    F. Elahi, C. Kolda and J. Unwin,UltraViolet Freeze-in, JHEP 03 (2015) 048 [1410.6157]

    2015 arXiv

  4. [11]

    Bernal, M

    N. Bernal, M. Heikinheimo, T. Tenkanen, K. Tuominen and V. Vaskonen,The Dawn of FIMP Dark Matter: A Review of Models and Constraints, Int. J. Mod. Phys. A32 (2017) 1730023 [1706.07442]

    2017 arXiv

  5. [12]

    Hambye, M.H.G

    T. Hambye, M.H.G. Tytgat, J. Vandecasteele and L. Vanderheyden,Dark matter direct detection is testing freeze-in, Phys. Rev. D98 (2018) 075017 [1807.05022]

    2018 arXiv

  6. [13]

    XENON collaboration, Light Dark Matter Search with Ionization Signals in XENON1T, Phys. Rev. Lett.123 (2019) 251801 [1907.11485]

    2019 arXiv

  7. [14]

    XENON collaboration, Excess electronic recoil events in XENON1T, Phys. Rev. D102 (2020) 072004 [2006.09721]

    2020 arXiv

  8. [15]

    G. Elor, R. McGehee and A. Pierce,Maximizing Direct Detection with Highly Interactive Particle Relic Dark Matter, Phys. Rev. Lett.130 (2023) 031803 [2112.03920]

    2023 arXiv

  9. [16]

    H. An, H. Nie, M. Pospelov, J. Pradler and A. Ritz,Solar reflection of dark matter, Phys. Rev. D 104 (2021) 103026 [2108.10332]

    2021 arXiv

  10. [17]

    CDEX collaboration, Experimental Limits on Solar Reflected Dark Matter with a New Approach on Accelerated-Dark-Matter–Electron Analysis in Semiconductors, Phys. Rev. Lett. 132 (2024) 171001 [2309.14982]

    2024 arXiv

  11. [18]

    Emken, R

    T. Emken, R. Essig and H. Xu,Solar reflection of dark matter with dark-photon mediators, JCAP 07 (2024) 023 [2404.10066]

    2024 arXiv

  12. [19]

    Molinaro, C.E

    E. Molinaro, C.E. Yaguna and Ó. Zapata,FIMP realization of the scotogenic model, JCAP 07 (2014) 015 [1405.1259]

    2014 arXiv

  13. [20]

    Hessler, A

    A.G. Hessler, A. Ibarra, E. Molinaro and S. Vogl,Probing the scotogenic FIMP at the LHC, JHEP 01 (2017) 100 [1611.09540]. – 13 –

    2017 arXiv

  14. [21]

    R.T. Co, F. D’Eramo, L.J. Hall and D. Pappadopulo,Freeze-In Dark Matter with Displaced Signatures at Colliders, JCAP 12 (2015) 024 [1506.07532]

    2015 arXiv

  15. [22]

    Bélanger et al.,LHC-friendly minimal freeze-in models, JHEP 02 (2019) 186 [1811.05478]

    G. Bélanger et al.,LHC-friendly minimal freeze-in models, JHEP 02 (2019) 186 [1811.05478]

    2019 arXiv

  16. [23]

    Junius, L

    S. Junius, L. López-Honorez and A. Mariotti,A feeble window on leptophilic dark matter, JHEP 07 (2019) 136 [1904.07513]

    2019 arXiv

  17. [24]

    Calibbi, F

    L. Calibbi, F. D’Eramo, S. Junius, L. López-Honorez and A. Mariotti,Displaced new physics at colliders and the early universe before its first second, JHEP 05 (2021) 234 [2102.06221]

    2021 arXiv

  18. [25]

    Barman, S

    B. Barman, S. Bhattacharya, S. Jahedi, D. Pradhan and A. Sarkar,Lepton Collider as a window to Reheating, 2406.11963

  19. [26]

    Barman, S

    B. Barman, S. Bhattacharya, S. Jahedi, D. Pradhan and A. Sarkar,Lepton Collider as a window to Reheating: II, 2410.18198

    arXiv

  20. [27]

    Ackerman, M.R

    L. Ackerman, M.R. Buckley, S.M. Carroll and M. Kamionkowski,Dark Matter and Dark Radiation, Phys. Rev. D79 (2009) 023519 [0810.5126]

    2009 arXiv

  21. [28]

    J.L. Feng, H. Tu and H.-B. Yu,Thermal Relics in Hidden Sectors, JCAP 10 (2008) 043 [0808.2318]

    2008 arXiv

  22. [29]

    J.L. Feng, M. Kaplinghat, H. Tu and H.-B. Yu,Hidden Charged Dark Matter, JCAP 07 (2009) 004 [0905.3039]

    2009 arXiv

  23. [30]

    X. Chu, T. Hambye and M.H.G. Tytgat,The Four Basic Ways of Creating Dark Matter Through a Portal, JCAP 05 (2012) 034 [1112.0493]

    2012 arXiv

  24. [31]

    Dvorkin, T

    C. Dvorkin, T. Lin and K. Schutz,Making dark matter out of light: freeze-in from plasma effects, Phys. Rev. D99 (2019) 115009 [1902.08623]

    2019 arXiv

  25. [32]

    Allahverdi et al.,The First Three Seconds: a Review of Possible Expansion Histories of the Early Universe, Open J.Astrophys.4 (2021) [ 2006.16182]

    R. Allahverdi et al.,The First Three Seconds: a Review of Possible Expansion Histories of the Early Universe, Open J.Astrophys.4 (2021) [ 2006.16182]

    2021 arXiv

  26. [33]

    Batell et al.,Conversations and Deliberations: Non-Standard Cosmological Epochs and Expansion Histories, 2411.04780

    B. Batell et al.,Conversations and Deliberations: Non-Standard Cosmological Epochs and Expansion Histories, 2411.04780

    arXiv

  27. [34]

    Kofman, A.D

    L. Kofman, A.D. Linde and A.A. Starobinsky,Towards the theory of reheating after inflation, Phys. Rev. D56 (1997) 3258 [hep-ph/9704452]

    1997 arXiv

  28. [35]

    Giudice, E.W

    G.F. Giudice, E.W. Kolb and A. Riotto,Largest temperature of the radiation era and its cosmological implications, Phys. Rev. D64 (2001) 023508 [hep-ph/0005123]

    2001 arXiv

  29. [37]

    Gan and Y.-D

    X. Gan and Y.-D. Tsai,Cosmic Millicharge Background and Reheating Probes, 2308.07951

    arXiv

  30. [38]

    Essig, J

    R. Essig, J. Mardon and T. Volansky,Direct Detection of Sub-GeV Dark Matter, Phys. Rev. D 85 (2012) 076007 [1108.5383]

    2012 arXiv

  31. [39]

    Essig, A

    R. Essig, A. Manalaysay, J. Mardon, P. Sorensen and T. Volansky,First Direct Detection Limits on sub-GeV Dark Matter from XENON10, Phys. Rev. Lett.109 (2012) 021301 [1206.2644]

    2012 arXiv

  32. [40]

    Essig, M

    R. Essig, M. Fernández-Serra, J. Mardon, A. Soto, T. Volansky and T.-T. Yu,Direct Detection of sub-GeV Dark Matter with Semiconductor Targets, JHEP 05 (2016) 046 [1509.01598]

    2016 arXiv

  33. [41]

    E. Iles, S. Heeba and K. Schutz,Direct Detection of the Millicharged Background, 2407.21096

    arXiv

  34. [42]

    Fabbrichesi, E

    M. Fabbrichesi, E. Gabrielli and G. Lanfranchi,The Dark Photon, 2005.01515

    2005 arXiv

  35. [43]

    Bhattiprolu, R

    P.N. Bhattiprolu, R. McGehee, E. Petrosky and A. Pierce,Sub-MeV Dark Sink Dark Matter, 2408.07744. – 14 –

    arXiv

  36. [44]

    Knapen, T

    S. Knapen, T. Lin and K.M. Zurek,Light Dark Matter: Models and Constraints, Phys. Rev. D 96 (2017) 115021 [1709.07882]

    2017 arXiv

  37. [45]

    Stueckelberg,Interaction energy in electrodynamics and in the field theory of nuclear forces, Helv

    E.C.G. Stueckelberg,Interaction energy in electrodynamics and in the field theory of nuclear forces, Helv. Phys. Acta11 (1938) 225

    1938

  38. [46]

    Englert and R

    F. Englert and R. Brout,Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons, Phys. Rev. Lett.13 (1964) 321

    1964

  39. [47]

    Higgs,Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons, Phys

    P.W. Higgs,Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons, Phys. Rev. Lett.13 (1964) 508

    1964

  40. [48]

    Caputo, H

    A. Caputo, H. Liu, S. Mishra-Sharma and J.T. Ruderman,Dark Photon Oscillations in Our Inhomogeneous Universe, Phys. Rev. Lett.125 (2020) 221303 [2002.05165]

    2020 arXiv

  41. [49]

    García, K

    A.A. García, K. Bondarenko, S. Ploeckinger, J. Pradler and A. Sokolenko,Effective photon mass and (dark) photon conversion in the inhomogeneous Universe, JCAP 10 (2020) 011 [2003.10465]

    2020 arXiv

  42. [50]

    Witte, S

    S.J. Witte, S. Rosauro-Alcaraz, S.D. McDermott and V. Poulin,Dark photon dark matter in the presence of inhomogeneous structure, JHEP 06 (2020) 132 [2003.13698]

    2020 arXiv

  43. [51]

    H. An, M. Pospelov and J. Pradler,New stellar constraints on dark photons, Phys. Lett. B 725 (2013) 190 [1302.3884]

    2013 arXiv

  44. [52]

    H. An, M. Pospelov and J. Pradler,Dark Matter Detectors as Dark Photon Helioscopes, Phys. Rev. Lett.111 (2013) 041302 [1304.3461]

    2013 arXiv

  45. [53]

    Davidson, S

    S. Davidson, S. Hannestad and G. Raffelt,Updated bounds on millicharged particles, JHEP 05 (2000) 003 [hep-ph/0001179]

    2000 arXiv

  46. [54]

    Vogel and J

    H. Vogel and J. Redondo,Dark Radiation constraints on minicharged particles in models with a hidden photon, JCAP 02 (2014) 029 [1311.2600]

    2014 arXiv

  47. [55]

    A. Fung, S. Heeba, Q. Liu, V. Muralidharan, K. Schutz and A.C. Vincent,New bounds on light millicharged particles from the tip of the red-giant branch, Phys. Rev. D109 (2024) 083011 [2309.06465]

    2024 arXiv

  48. [56]

    Hambye, M.H.G

    T. Hambye, M.H.G. Tytgat, J. Vandecasteele and L. Vanderheyden,Dark matter from dark photons: a taxonomy of dark matter production, Phys. Rev. D100 (2019) 095018 [1908.09864]

    2019 arXiv

  49. [57]

    Bernal, K

    N. Bernal, K. Deka and M. Losada,Thermal dark matter with low-temperature reheating, JCAP 09 (2024) 024 [2406.17039]

    2024 arXiv

  50. [58]

    Sarkar,Big bang nucleosynthesis and physics beyond the standard model, Rept

    S. Sarkar,Big bang nucleosynthesis and physics beyond the standard model, Rept. Prog. Phys. 59 (1996) 1493 [hep-ph/9602260]

    1996 arXiv

  51. [59]

    Kawasaki, K

    M. Kawasaki, K. Kohri and N. Sugiyama,MeV scale reheating temperature and thermalization of neutrino background, Phys. Rev. D62 (2000) 023506 [astro-ph/0002127]

    2000 arXiv

  52. [60]

    Hannestad,What is the lowest possible reheating temperature?, Phys

    S. Hannestad,What is the lowest possible reheating temperature?, Phys. Rev. D70 (2004) 043506 [astro-ph/0403291]

    2004 arXiv

  53. [61]

    De Bernardis, L

    F. De Bernardis, L. Pagano and A. Melchiorri,New constraints on the reheating temperature of the universe after WMAP-5, Astropart. Phys.30 (2008) 192

    2008

  54. [62]

    de Salas, M

    P.F. de Salas, M. Lattanzi, G. Mangano, G. Miele, S. Pastor and O. Pisanti,Bounds on very low reheating scenarios after Planck, Phys. Rev. D92 (2015) 123534 [1511.00672]

    2015 arXiv

  55. [63]

    Drees, F

    M. Drees, F. Hajkarim and E.R. Schmitz,The Effects of QCD Equation of State on the Relic Density of WIMP Dark Matter, JCAP 06 (2015) 025 [1503.03513]. – 15 –

    2015 arXiv

  56. [64]

    BICEP, Keck collaboration, Improved Constraints on Primordial Gravitational Waves using Planck, WMAP, and BICEP/Keck Observations through the 2018 Observing Season, Phys. Rev. Lett.127 (2021) 151301 [2110.00483]

    2021

  57. [65]

    R.T. Co, E. González and K. Harigaya,Increasing Temperature toward the Completion of Reheating, JCAP 11 (2020) 038 [2007.04328]

    2020 arXiv

  58. [66]

    Barman, N

    B. Barman, N. Bernal and Y. Xu,Resonant reheating, JCAP 08 (2024) 014 [2404.16090]

    2024 arXiv

  59. [67]

    Spokoiny,Deflationary universe scenario, Phys

    B. Spokoiny,Deflationary universe scenario, Phys. Lett. B315 (1993) 40 [gr-qc/9306008]

    1993 arXiv

  60. [68]

    Ferreira and M

    P.G. Ferreira and M. Joyce,Cosmology with a primordial scaling field, Phys. Rev. D58 (1998) 023503 [astro-ph/9711102]

    1998 arXiv

  61. [69]

    Bhattiprolu, R

    P.N. Bhattiprolu, R. McGehee and A. Pierce,Dark sink enhances the direct detection of freeze-in dark matter, Phys. Rev. D110 (2024) L031702 [2312.14152]

    2024 arXiv

  62. [70]

    https://github.com/prudhvibhattiprolu/FreezeIn

  63. [71]

    Drees and F

    M. Drees and F. Hajkarim,Dark Matter Production in an Early Matter Dominated Era, JCAP 02 (2018) 057 [1711.05007]

    2018 arXiv

  64. [72]

    Arias, N

    P. Arias, N. Bernal, A. Herrera and C. Maldonado,Reconstructing Non-standard Cosmologies with Dark Matter, JCAP 10 (2019) 047 [1906.04183]

    2019 arXiv

  65. [73]

    Particle Data Group collaboration, Review of particle physics, Phys. Rev. D110 (2024) 030001

    2024

  66. [74]

    Fornengo, A

    N. Fornengo, A. Riotto and S. Scopel,Supersymmetric dark matter and the reheating temperature of the universe, Phys. Rev. D67 (2003) 023514 [hep-ph/0208072]

    2003 arXiv

  67. [75]

    Pallis,Massive particle decay and cold dark matter abundance, Astropart

    C. Pallis,Massive particle decay and cold dark matter abundance, Astropart. Phys.21 (2004) 689 [hep-ph/0402033]

    2004 arXiv

  68. [76]

    Gelmini and P

    G.B. Gelmini and P. Gondolo,Neutralino with the right cold dark matter abundance in (almost) any supersymmetric model, Phys. Rev. D74 (2006) 023510 [hep-ph/0602230]

    2006 arXiv

  69. [77]

    Drees, H

    M. Drees, H. Iminniyaz and M. Kakizaki,Abundance of cosmological relics in low-temperature scenarios, Phys. Rev. D73 (2006) 123502 [hep-ph/0603165]

    2006 arXiv

  70. [78]

    Yaguna,An intermediate framework between WIMP, FIMP, and EWIP dark matter, JCAP 02 (2012) 006 [1111.6831]

    C.E. Yaguna,An intermediate framework between WIMP, FIMP, and EWIP dark matter, JCAP 02 (2012) 006 [1111.6831]

    2012 arXiv

  71. [79]

    Roszkowski, S

    L. Roszkowski, S. Trojanowski and K. Turzyński,Neutralino and gravitino dark matter with low reheating temperature, JHEP 11 (2014) 146 [1406.0012]

    2014 arXiv

  72. [80]

    Bernal, C

    N. Bernal, C. Cosme and T. Tenkanen,Phenomenology of Self-Interacting Dark Matter in a Matter-Dominated Universe, Eur. Phys. J. C79 (2019) 99 [1803.08064]

    2019 arXiv

  73. [81]

    Bernal, C

    N. Bernal, C. Cosme, T. Tenkanen and V. Vaskonen,Scalar singlet dark matter in non-standard cosmologies, Eur. Phys. J. C79 (2019) 30 [1806.11122]

    2019 arXiv

  74. [82]

    Cosme, M

    C. Cosme, M. Dutra, T. Ma, Y. Wu and L. Yang,Neutrino portal to FIMP dark matter with an early matter era, JHEP 03 (2021) 026 [2003.01723]

    2021 arXiv

  75. [83]

    Arias, N

    P. Arias, N. Bernal, D. Karamitros, C. Maldonado, L. Roszkowski and M. Venegas,New opportunities for axion dark matter searches in nonstandard cosmological models, JCAP 11 (2021) 003 [2107.13588]

    2021 arXiv

  76. [84]

    Bernal and Y

    N. Bernal and Y. Xu,WIMPs during reheating, JCAP 12 (2022) 017 [2209.07546]

    2022 arXiv

  77. [85]

    Bhattiprolu, G

    P.N. Bhattiprolu, G. Elor, R. McGehee and A. Pierce,Freezing-in hadrophilic dark matter at low reheating temperatures, JHEP 01 (2023) 128 [2210.15653]

    2023 arXiv

  78. [86]

    Haque, D

    M.R. Haque, D. Maity and R. Mondal,WIMPs, FIMPs, and Inflaton phenomenology via reheating, CMB and∆Nef f, JHEP 09 (2023) 012 [2301.01641]. – 16 –

    2023 arXiv

  79. [87]

    Chowdhury and A

    D. Chowdhury and A. Hait,Thermalization in the presence of a time-dependent dissipation and its impact on dark matter production, JHEP 09 (2023) 085 [2302.06654]

    2023 arXiv

  80. [88]

    Ghosh, A

    D.K. Ghosh, A. Ghoshal and S. Jeesun,Axion-like particle (ALP) portal freeze-in dark matter confronting ALP search experiments, JHEP 01 (2024) 026 [2305.09188]

    2024 arXiv

  81. [89]

    Becker, E

    M. Becker, E. Copello, J. Harz, J. Lang and Y. Xu,Confronting dark matter freeze-in during reheating with constraints from inflation, JCAP 01 (2024) 053 [2306.17238]

    2024 arXiv

  82. [90]

    Silva-Malpartida, N

    J. Silva-Malpartida, N. Bernal, J. Jones-Pérez and R.A. Lineros,From WIMPs to FIMPs with low reheating temperatures, JCAP 09 (2023) 015 [2306.14943]

    2023 arXiv

  83. [91]

    Arias, N

    P. Arias, N. Bernal, J.K. Osiński, L. Roszkowski and M. Venegas,Revisiting signatures of thermal axions in nonstandard cosmologies, Phys. Rev. D109 (2024) 123529 [2308.01352]

    2024 arXiv

  84. [92]

    Xu,Constraining axion and ALP dark matter from misalignment during reheating, Phys

    Y. Xu,Constraining axion and ALP dark matter from misalignment during reheating, Phys. Rev. D 108 (2023) 083536 [2308.15322]

    2023 arXiv

  85. [93]

    Banerjee, D

    A. Banerjee, D. Chowdhury, A. Hait and M.S. Islam,Dark matter cooling during early matter-domination boosts sub-earth halos, 2408.08360

    arXiv

  86. [94]

    Silva-Malpartida, N

    J. Silva-Malpartida, N. Bernal, J. Jones-Pérez and R.A. Lineros,From WIMPs to FIMPs: Impact of Early Matter Domination, 2408.08950

    arXiv

  87. [95]

    Davidson, M

    S. Davidson, M. Losada and A. Riotto,A New perspective on baryogenesis, Phys. Rev. Lett. 84 (2000) 4284 [hep-ph/0001301]

    2000 arXiv

  88. [96]

    Allahverdi, B

    R. Allahverdi, B. Dutta and K. Sinha,Baryogenesis and Late-Decaying Moduli, Phys. Rev. D 82 (2010) 035004 [1005.2804]

    2010 arXiv

  89. [97]

    Beniwal, M

    A. Beniwal, M. Lewicki, J.D. Wells, M. White and A.G. Williams,Gravitational wave, collider and dark matter signals from a scalar singlet electroweak baryogenesis, JHEP 08 (2017) 108 [1702.06124]

    2017 arXiv

  90. [98]

    Allahverdi, P.S.B

    R. Allahverdi, P.S.B. Dev and B. Dutta,A simple testable model of baryon number violation: Baryogenesis, dark matter, neutron–antineutron oscillation and collider signals, Phys. Lett. B 779 (2018) 262 [1712.02713]

    2018 arXiv

  91. [99]

    Nelson and H

    A.E. Nelson and H. Xiao,Baryogenesis from B Meson Oscillations, Phys. Rev. D100 (2019) 075002 [1901.08141]

    2019 arXiv

  92. [100]

    Asaka, H

    T. Asaka, H. Ishida and W. Yin,Direct baryogenesis in the broken phase, JHEP 07 (2020) 174 [1912.08797]

    2020 arXiv

  93. [101]

    Jaeckel and W

    J. Jaeckel and W. Yin,High energy sphalerons for baryogenesis at low temperatures, Phys. Rev. D 107 (2023) 015001 [2206.06376]

    2023 arXiv

  94. [102]

    Bernal and C.S

    N. Bernal and C.S. Fong,Hot Leptogenesis from Thermal Dark Matter, JCAP 10 (2017) 042 [1707.02988]

    2017 arXiv

  95. [103]

    S.-L. Chen, A. Dutta Banik and Z.-K. Liu,Leptogenesis in fast expanding Universe, JCAP 03 (2020) 009 [1912.07185]

    2020 arXiv

  96. [104]

    Bernal, C.S

    N. Bernal, C.S. Fong, Y.F. Pérez-González and J. Turner,Rescuing high-scale leptogenesis using primordial black holes, Phys. Rev. D106 (2022) 035019 [2203.08823]

    2022 arXiv

  97. [105]

    Chakraborty and S

    M. Chakraborty and S. Roy,Baryon asymmetry and lower bound on right handed neutrino mass in fast expanding Universe: an analytical approach, JCAP 11 (2022) 053 [2208.04046]

    2022 arXiv

  98. [106]

    Assadullahi and D

    H. Assadullahi and D. Wands,Gravitational waves from an early matter era, Phys. Rev. D79 (2009) 083511 [0901.0989]

    2009 arXiv

  99. [107]

    Durrer and J

    R. Durrer and J. Hasenkamp,Testing Superstring Theories with Gravitational Waves, Phys. Rev. D 84 (2011) 064027 [1105.5283]. – 17 –

    2011 arXiv

  100. [108]

    Alabidi, K

    L. Alabidi, K. Kohri, M. Sasaki and Y. Sendouda,Observable induced gravitational waves from an early matter phase, JCAP 05 (2013) 033 [1303.4519]

    2013 arXiv

  101. [109]

    D’Eramo and K

    F. D’Eramo and K. Schmitz,Imprint of a scalar era on the primordial spectrum of gravitational waves, Phys. Rev. Research.1 (2019) 013010 [1904.07870]

    2019 arXiv

  102. [110]

    Bernal and F

    N. Bernal and F. Hajkarim,Primordial Gravitational Waves in Nonstandard Cosmologies, Phys. Rev. D100 (2019) 063502 [1905.10410]

    2019 arXiv

  103. [111]

    Figueroa and E.H

    D.G. Figueroa and E.H. Tanin,Ability of LIGO and LISA to probe the equation of state of the early Universe, JCAP 08 (2019) 011 [1905.11960]

    2019 arXiv

  104. [112]

    Bernal, A

    N. Bernal, A. Ghoshal, F. Hajkarim and G. Lambiase,Primordial Gravitational Wave Signals in Modified Cosmologies, JCAP 11 (2020) 051 [2008.04959]

    2020 arXiv

  105. [113]

    A.R. Frey, R. Mahanta, A. Maharana, F. Quevedo and G. Villa,Gravitational waves from high temperature strings, JHEP 12 (2024) 174 [2408.13803]

    2024 arXiv

  106. [114]

    Villa,Gravitational Waves from the Hagedorn Phase, in29th International Symposium on Particles, String and Cosmology, 10, 2024 [2410.07350]

    G. Villa,Gravitational Waves from the Hagedorn Phase, in29th International Symposium on Particles, String and Cosmology, 10, 2024 [2410.07350]

    2024 arXiv

  107. [115]

    Bernal and Y

    N. Bernal and Y. Xu,Thermal Gravitational Waves During Reheating, 2410.21385

    arXiv

  108. [116]

    Heeba, T

    S. Heeba, T. Lin and K. Schutz,Inelastic freeze-in, Phys. Rev. D108 (2023) 095016 [2304.06072]

    2023 arXiv

  109. [117]

    LZ Collaboration collaboration, Dark Matter Search Results from 4.2 Tonne-Years of Exposure of the LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) Experiment, 2410.17036

    arXiv

  110. [118]

    SENSEI collaboration, SENSEI: First Direct-Detection Results on sub-GeV Dark Matter from SENSEI at SNOLAB, 2312.13342

    arXiv

  111. [119]

    Oscura collaboration, The Oscura Experiment, 2202.10518

    arXiv

  112. [120]

    Cosme, F

    C. Cosme, F. Costa and O. Lebedev,Freeze-in at stronger coupling, Phys. Rev. D109 (2024) 075038 [2306.13061]

    2024 arXiv

  113. [121]

    Cosme, F

    C. Cosme, F. Costa and O. Lebedev,Temperature evolution in the Early Universe and freeze-in at stronger coupling, JCAP 06 (2024) 031 [2402.04743]

    2024 arXiv

  114. [122]

    Arcadi, F

    G. Arcadi, F. Costa, A. Goudelis and O. Lebedev,Higgs portal dark matter freeze-in at stronger coupling: observational benchmarks, JHEP 07 (2024) 044 [2405.03760]

    2024 arXiv

  115. [123]

    Arcadi, D

    G. Arcadi, D. Cabo-Almeida and O. Lebedev,Z ′-mediated dark matter freeze-in at stronger coupling, 2409.02191

    arXiv

  116. [124]

    Lebedev, A.P

    O. Lebedev, A.P. Morais, V. Oliveira and R. Pasechnik,Invisible Higgs decay from dark matter freeze-in at stronger coupling, 2410.21874

    arXiv

  117. [125]

    PandaXcollaboration, Search for Light Dark Matter with Ionization Signals in the PandaX-4T Experiment, Phys. Rev. Lett.130 (2023) 261001 [2212.10067]

    2023 arXiv

  118. [126]

    J.L. Feng, M. Kaplinghat and H.-B. Yu,Halo Shape and Relic Density Exclusions of Sommerfeld-Enhanced Dark Matter Explanations of Cosmic Ray Excesses, Phys. Rev. Lett. 104 (2010) 151301 [0911.0422]

    2010 arXiv

  119. [127]

    Kaplinghat, S

    M. Kaplinghat, S. Tulin and H.-B. Yu,Dark Matter Halos as Particle Colliders: Unified Solution to Small-Scale Structure Puzzles from Dwarfs to Clusters, Phys. Rev. Lett.116 (2016) 041302 [1508.03339]

    2016 arXiv

  120. [128]

    SENSEI collaboration, Single-electron and single-photon sensitivity with a silicon Skipper CCD, Phys. Rev. Lett.119 (2017) 131802 [1706.00028]

    2017 arXiv

  121. [129]

    DAMIC-M collaboration, DAMIC-M Experiment: Thick, Silicon CCDs to search for Light Dark Matter, Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A958 (2020) 162933 [2001.01476]. – 18 –

    2020 arXiv

  122. [130]

    Bélanger, F

    G. Bélanger, F. Boudjema, A. Pukhov and A. Semenov,MicrOMEGAs: A Program for calculating the relic density in the MSSM, Comput. Phys. Commun.149 (2002) 103 [hep-ph/0112278]

    2002 arXiv

  123. [131]

    Alguero, G

    G. Alguero, G. Bélanger, F. Boudjema, S. Chakraborti, A. Goudelis, S. Kraml et al., micrOMEGAs 6.0: N-component dark matter, Comput. Phys. Commun.299 (2024) 109133 [2312.14894]

    2024 arXiv

  124. [132]

    hot dark matter

    W. Yin,Thermal production of cold “hot dark matter” around eV, JHEP 05 (2023) 180 [2301.08735]

    2023 arXiv

  125. [133]

    Sakurai and W

    K. Sakurai and W. Yin,Stimulated Emission of Dark Matter via Thermal Scattering: Novel Limits for Freeze-In and eV Cold Dark Matter, 2410.18968. – 19 –

    arXiv

Pith tools

Reviewed August 11, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.