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The Star Clusters As Links between galaxy Evolution and Star formation (SCALES) project I: Numerical method
Astrophysics of Galaxies · Submitted 8 Aug 2024
abstract compiled · 2026-09-23 · no language-model review
The authors' main claim This makes feedback more efficient at ionising and disrupting the cloud than if we were to use a standard star formation approach, indicating that our numerical method is the missing critical step to model the interplay between star clusters and their host galaxies.
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The abstract, sentence by sentence
Stellar clusters are critical constituents within galaxies: they are the result of highest-density star formation, and through their spatially and temporally correlated feedback they regulate their host galaxy evolution. We present a novel numerical method to model star clusters as individual units of star formation using sink particles. In our method, star clusters grow via gas accretion and via merging with less massive clusters. We describe the implementation in the radiation hydrodynamics code GIZMO and run a large grid of marginally bound, turbulent clouds of $10^7~{\rm M}_{\odot}$ to explore the effect of modeling ingredients on the evolution of the clouds and the star clusters. We find both gas accretion and mergers to be critical processes to form star clusters of masses up to $\sim10^5$-$10^6~{\rm M}_{\odot}$, while ionising radiation is the main feedback mechanism regulating the growth of star clusters. The majority of our star clusters assemble their mass in $0.3$-$2.6~{\rm Myr}$, and the most massive ones take $\sim10~{\rm Myr}$. By removing high density gas by accretion, our sink-based cluster formation prescription allows the newly-formed star clusters to inject their stellar feedback in less dense environments. This makes feedback more efficient at ionising and disrupting the cloud than if we were to use a standard star formation approach, indicating that our numerical method is the missing critical step to model the interplay between star clusters and their host galaxies.
background contribution method result interpretation main claim
| # | sentence | role | the authors' own work | states the main conclusion | strength |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| s0 | Stellar clusters are critical constituents within galaxies: they are the result of highest-density star formation, and through their spatially and temporally correlated feedback they regulate their host galaxy evolution. | background 1.00 | 0.05 | 0.05 | asserted 1.00 |
| s1 | We present a novel numerical method to model star clusters as individual units of star formation using sink particles. | contribution 0.91 | 0.94 | 0.06 | asserted 0.99 |
| s2 | In our method, star clusters grow via gas accretion and via merging with less massive clusters. | method 0.99 | 0.55 | 0.04 | asserted 1.00 |
| s3 | We describe the implementation in the radiation hydrodynamics code GIZMO and run a large grid of marginally bound, turbulent clouds of $10^7~{\rm M}_{\odot}$ to explore the effect of modeling ingredients on the evolution of the clouds and the star clusters. | method 0.98 | 0.96 | 0.03 | asserted 0.96 |
| s4 | We find both gas accretion and mergers to be critical processes to form star clusters of masses up to $\sim10^5$-$10^6~{\rm M}_{\odot}$, while ionising radiation is the main feedback mechanism regulating the growth of star clusters. | result 1.00 | 0.97 | 0.48 | asserted 1.00 |
| s5 | The majority of our star clusters assemble their mass in $0.3$-$2.6~{\rm Myr}$, and the most massive ones take $\sim10~{\rm Myr}$. | result 1.00 | 0.96 | 0.07 | asserted 1.00 |
| s6 | By removing high density gas by accretion, our sink-based cluster formation prescription allows the newly-formed star clusters to inject their stellar feedback in less dense environments. | interpretation 0.60 | 0.83 | 0.11 | asserted 0.99 |
| s7 | This makes feedback more efficient at ionising and disrupting the cloud than if we were to use a standard star formation approach, indicating that our numerical method is the missing critical step to model the interplay between star clusters and their host galaxies. | interpretation 1.00 | 0.78 | 0.60 | hedged possibility 0.80 |
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The paper
Original abstract
Stellar clusters are critical constituents within galaxies: they are the result of highest-density star formation, and through their spatially and temporally correlated feedback they regulate their host galaxy evolution. We present a novel numerical method to model star clusters as individual units of star formation using sink particles. In our method, star clusters grow via gas accretion and via merging with less massive clusters. We describe the implementation in the radiation hydrodynamics code GIZMO and run a large grid of marginally bound, turbulent clouds of $10^7~{\rm M}_{\odot}$ to explore the effect of modeling ingredients on the evolution of the clouds and the star clusters. We find both gas accretion and mergers to be critical processes to form star clusters of masses up to $\sim10^5$-$10^6~{\rm M}_{\odot}$, while ionising radiation is the main feedback mechanism regulating the growth of star clusters. The majority of our star clusters assemble their mass in $0.3$-$2.6~{\rm Myr}$, and the most massive ones take $\sim10~{\rm Myr}$. By removing high density gas by accretion, our sink-based cluster formation prescription allows the newly-formed star clusters to inject their stellar feedback in less dense environments. This makes feedback more efficient at ionising and disrupting the cloud than if we were to use a standard star formation approach, indicating that our numerical method is the missing critical step to model the interplay between star clusters and their host galaxies.
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References
How the literature uses it
4 arXiv papers cite this in 5 sentences
Papers citing it · 3 sentences without a confident label
Cites it as support 1 paper
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Although it is not possible to confirm observationally whether the most massive YMCs in starbursts in the local Universe are forming through sub-cluster mergers – let alone GCs at high redshift – there is strong evidence from simulations that the most massive star clusters assemble from the repeated mergers of smaller sub-clusters [ref] .
Massive Star Cluster Formation with Binaries. I. Evolution of Binary Populations · Implication for globular cluster formation · 0.96
Cites it as background 1 paper
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These simulations either include star clusters in full cosmological simulations, sometimes including adaptive mesh-refinement or zoom-in techniques [ref] or use high spatial- and temporal resolutions but evolve for less than one Gyr [ref] .
Massive Star Clusters in the Semi-Analytical Galaxy Formation Model L-Galaxies 2020 · Introduction · 0.89
What it cites · 7 sentences without a confident label
Compares with 1 paper
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In particular, we compare our results against previous simulations of isolated turbulent clouds that resolve single stars [ref] or low-mass stellar populations [ref] .
Massive star cluster formation I. High star formation efficiency while resolving feedback of individual stars · Comparison to previous works · 0.98
Cites as background 3 papers
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The number of protocluster nurseries at early cosmic times is quickly increasing with the James Webb Space Telescope [ref] , and more information is available about their galactic environments [ref] .
Bound star clusters observed in a lensed galaxy 460 Myr after the Big Bang · Conclusions · 0.88
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The number of protocluster nurseries at early cosmic times is quickly increasing with the James Webb Space Telescope [ref] , and more information is available about their galactic environments [ref] .
The Firefly Sparkle: The Earliest Stages of the Assembly of A Milky Way-type Galaxy in a 600 Myr Old Universe · Conclusions · 0.88
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The number of protocluster nurseries at early cosmic times is quickly increasing with the James Webb Space Telescope [ref] , and more information is available about their galactic environments [ref] .
2404.10770 · Conclusions · 0.88
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