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Bidirectional microwave-optical conversion with an integrated soft-ferroelectric barium titanate transducer

T0 review · 3 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-10 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read This paper demonstrates an integrated barium titanate transducer that converts microwave and optical photons bidirectionally at millikelvin temperatures.

desk verdict First integrated BaTiO3 microwave-optical transducer with honest, calibration-limited efficiency numbers; the platform work is solid and the absolute efficiency is openly flagged as approximate. read the letter →

arxiv 2501.09728 v2 pith:XVPDWD74 submitted 2025-01-16 physics.optics cond-mat.mes-hallphysics.app-phquant-ph

Charles Möhl , Annina Riedhauser , Max Glantschnig , Daniele Caimi , Ute Drechsler , Antonis Olziersky , Deividas Sabonis , David I. Indolese
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Thomas M. Karg Paul Seidler
This is my paper · ORCID
classification physics.opticscond-mat.mes-hallphysics.app-phquant-ph
keywords microwave-opticaltransductionbariumtitanatePockelseffectsoftferroelectricsuperconductingresonatortriplyresonantcavityelectro-opticsquantuminterconnectcryogenicintegratedphotonics
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper reports the first integrated microwave-optical transducer built from the soft ferroelectric barium titanate (BaTiO3), a material with a much larger electro-optic (Pockels) effect than the AlN and LiNbO3 films used in earlier devices. The authors show that a chip combining two BaTiO3 ring resonators with a superconducting niobium microwave resonator converts photons in both directions, reaching a total off-chip efficiency of $1\times10^{-6}$ at 8 mK. They also introduce a device geometry that allows the ferroelectric domains to be poled in place after cooling without adding microwave loss, together with a fully subtractive fabrication process using superconducting air bridges. A separate heating study distinguishes fast in-cavity dielectric heating from quasiparticle and substrate heating, which matters for keeping added noise low in quantum use. If these results hold, soft ferroelectrics become a viable route to more efficient quantum interconnects between superconducting processors.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is the triply resonant cavity electro-optic system: a photonic molecule formed by two evanescently coupled BaTiO3 ring resonators, whose antisymmetric optical beating is phase-matched to the field of a half-wavelength superconducting niobium microwave resonator. The interaction is the Pockels-effect Hamiltonian $H_{\mathrm{int}} = \hbar g_0 (a_+^\dagger a_- + a_-^\dagger a_+)(b + b^\dagger)$, with vacuum coupling $g_0 = G V_{\mathrm{zpf}}$, where $G = \partial \omega_a/\partial V$ is the frequency-pulling factor and $V_{\mathrm{zpf}}$ is the zero-point voltage across the ring capacitors. A dc-bias port placed at the voltage node of the microwave mode provides in-situ ferroelectric poling without adding microwave loss, and a capacitively coupled tuning electrode is part of the microwave resonator, giving 91% electrode coverage. The transduction response is modeled by a linearized input-output S-matrix that includes forward-backward optical scattering, and the efficiency is calibrated through a chain of separately measured optical, microwave, and heterodyne gains.

What would settle it

Measuring microwave-to-optical transduction in transmission at 10 mK with both optical fibers coupled, and comparing that directly measured efficiency with the reflection-corrected value of $1\times10^{-6}$, would settle whether the backscattering and calibration model is accurate.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is a working, integrated, triply resonant electro-optic transducer in which a photonic molecule of two evanescently coupled BaTiO3 ring resonators is driven by a $\lambda/2$-type superconducting niobium microwave resonator, with the microwave frequency matched to the optical mode splitting. Bidirectional continuous-wave and pulsed transduction is demonstrated, with a peak pulsed off-chip efficiency of $1\times10^{-6}$ at 8 mK and linear behavior over a wide range of pump powers. The design places the dc-bias port at the voltage node of the microwave mode, so the ferroelectric can be poled in situ without loading the microwave circuit, and it capacitively couples the tuning electrode into the resonator to reach a usable electrode coverage of 91%. From the measured electro-optic tuning the authors extract a vacuum coupling rate $g_0/2\pi = 406$ Hz, corresponding to an effective Pockels coefficient of about 13 pm/V, more than an order of magnitude below the 200 pm/V reported for BaTiO3 thin films at cryogenic temperature. The paper also claims that optically induced heating in the quantum-relevant low-power regime is dominated by fast in-cavity dielectric heating rather than straylight-driven quasiparticle heating.

Load-bearing premise

The reported absolute efficiency of $1\times10^{-6}$ and the extracted coupling rate $g_0$ rest on a chain of calibration factors measured at room temperature, including an estimated $-5$ dB fiber-to-chip loss and empirical $+11.3$ dB and $+15.65$ dB power calibrations, and on a fitted backscattering model used because one optical fiber broke before the cryogenic run.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • If the cryogenic Pockels coefficient can be raised from the measured 13 pm/V to the 200 pm/V reported for BaTiO3 films, the transduction efficiency would rise by roughly 20 dB.
  • Improving the intrinsic optical quality factor from $1\times10^5$ to the reported absorption-limited $3.8\times10^6$ would add about 30 dB of efficiency, and the authors estimate that combining all listed improvements could bring off-chip efficiency close to unity.
  • In the low-power regime relevant to quantum transduction, in-cavity dielectric heating dominates over quasiparticle heating, and its sub-microsecond response means it cannot be suppressed by lowering the optical pump duty cycle.
  • The transducer design and the subtractive fabrication process transfer to other large-Pockels materials such as SrTiO3 and LiNbO3 with minor modifications.
  • Optical-to-microwave transduction remains linear in pump power from $-30$ dBm to $+12$ dBm, and the phase-coherent interference of the two optical sidebands confirms that the conversion process is coherent.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Beyond the paper: if the reduced 13 pm/V Pockels coefficient is indeed strain-related, cryogenic strain engineering of the BaTiO3 film is a direct, testable route to recover the 200 pm/V value, which would make the device competitive with optimized LiNbO3 transducers at much lower pump power.
  • Beyond the paper: because the microwave-to-optical path was measured through residual backscattering with one fiber broken, the true on-chip microwave-to-optical efficiency could be higher than the reported off-chip value; a fully packaged two-fiber measurement would separate device efficiency from the backscattering correction.
  • Beyond the paper: the post-cooldown inversion of the optical tuning polarity suggests that cooling under an applied bias may deterministically set the ferroelectric domain orientation, which could be used as a fabrication protocol to maximize the low-temperature Pockels response.
  • Beyond the paper: the demonstrated linear transduction range and the identified heating budget imply that added-noise measurements at single-photon levels are the next decisive test; the paper's estimate of about three photons of added noise at 0 dBm peak pump power could be verified directly with a calibrated noise measurement.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 4 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents an integrated microwave-optical transducer based on BaTiO3-on-SiO2, consisting of a photonic molecule (two coupled ring resonators) and a superconducting Nb microwave resonator. The authors demonstrate bidirectional continuous-wave and pulsed transduction with an off-chip efficiency of 1×10−6 at 8 mK, in-situ ferroelectric poling through a bias port located at the microwave voltage null, and a fully subtractive fabrication process with superconducting air bridges. They also study optically induced heating, distinguishing fast in-cavity dielectric heating from slower substrate and quasiparticle heating. The measured efficiencies are modeled with a linearized input-output S-matrix theory (Appendix B) using parameters from independent characterizations, including a g0 = 2π×406 Hz obtained from dc electro-optic tuning.

Significance. If the claims hold, this is the first integrated triply resonant electro-optic transducer using a soft ferroelectric (BaTiO3), demonstrating a viable path toward higher-Pockels-coefficient materials for quantum interconnects. The in-situ poling concept and the subtractive air-bridge fabrication are genuinely useful contributions that transfer to other ferroelectrics. The paper is strengthened by a self-contained S-matrix model, an independent dc-tuning extraction of g0 (Appendix E2), and a careful thermal characterization with a physically motivated line-shape model. However, the quantitative headline (1e-6 off-chip efficiency) rests on a room-temperature fiber-coupling calibration and an empirical power calibration chain, and the measured device was operated with a ~2 GHz detuning from the nominal triple-resonance condition. These limitations are acknowledged in the body but not fully reflected in the abstract.

major comments (3)
  1. [Sec. IV / App. D2 / Fig. 5c] The absolute off-chip efficiencies plotted in Fig. 5c are obtained via a calibration chain (Appendix D2) that includes a fiber-to-chip loss 'estimated at −5 dB from room-temperature characterization' and two empirical factors (+11.3 dB and +15.65 dB). The only cryogenic cross-check is the cw optical-heating comparison in Appendix D2, which calibrates power in the fiber but not the fiber-to-chip interface itself. Section VI reports a sudden, irreversible degradation of the fiber-chip efficiency under high optical power, demonstrating that the interface is not stable under the operating conditions used in this work. Because the headline efficiency of 1×10−6 and the comparison to state-of-the-art LiNbO3 transducers in Fig. 5c are directly proportional to these calibration factors, a systematic drift of even 3–5 dB would change the central quantitative claim by a comparable factor. I request an uncertainty budget for the reported efficiencies, and either a cryogenic calibration of the fiber-to-chip loss or a clear statement that the quoted efficiencies are upper bounds based on room-temperature coupling estimates.
  2. [Sec. IV / App. B2] The microwave-to-optical direction was measured entirely in reflection after one optical fiber broke (Sec. III), relying on 'residual optical backscattering' for signal extraction (Sec. IV). The transduction efficiency for this direction is modeled with fitted forward-backward coupling rates ν1,2 (Appendix B2, Table V). The authors themselves state that intra-ring backscattering cannot be clearly distinguished from residual backscattering at the bus-waveguide end facet. Consequently, the absolute efficiency of the microwave-to-optical path and the >10 dB asymmetry between the two directions depend on an ambiguous model parameter. This does not affect the optical-to-microwave efficiency, but the bidirectional quantitative comparison should be presented with this caveat, and the abstract's unqualified 'bidirectional' efficiency should be limited to the optical-to-microwave direction or explicitly qualified.
  3. [Sec. III, IV, G] The paper repeatedly describes the device as 'triply resonant', but the measured photonic-molecule splitting is 2µ = 2π×4.7 GHz (Sec. III) while the microwave resonance is at ωb = 2π×6.82 GHz (Sec. III); the residual detuning of ~2.1 GHz is acknowledged in Sec. G as the likely cause of the central-peak splitting. The transduction data in Fig. 3 were therefore taken with the microwave-to-molecule frequency mismatch present, and the authors list 'eliminat[ing] the mismatch... providing another 4 dB improvement' as a future improvement (Sec. VII). The abstract and introduction's 'triply resonant transducer' overstates the as-measured device. Please qualify the abstract (e.g., 'designed to be triply resonant') and quantify the detuning in the main text and figures.
minor comments (4)
  1. [App. E2 / A4] The g0 value used in the consistency check combines a measured dc tuning slope with a simulated zero-point voltage; please state the systematic uncertainty in g0 and explicitly note that the dc Pockels response is an upper bound for the microwave-frequency response, as the text already suggests.
  2. [Data Availability] The Data Availability statement says 'available through Zenodo at (to be provided)'; this must be completed before publication.
  3. [Sec. IV / Fig. 3] The notation ω+ and ω− is ambiguous: Section IV calls the resonance with ∆p=0 the 'lower photonic molecule resonance' while Fig. 3c assigns Stokes and anti-Stokes peaks to opposite detunings; please define the mode ordering explicitly.
  4. [Sec. VI] The sentence 'with increasing pump power the pulse length is decreased from 1 ms to 40 µs' mixes present and past tense; also verify the stated duty-cycle arithmetic for a fixed 0.8 kHz repetition rate.

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged · score 2.0 of 10

Headline efficiency is a direct calibrated measurement; only a minor fitted-backscattering explanation is circular, and the g0 consistency check is independent.

  1. fitted input called prediction [Section IV, paragraph beginning 'To understand the electro-optic response of the device' (transduction model discussion)]
    "We find that the reduced microwave-to-optical transduction efficiency of the signal emitted in the backward direction is well explained by a low forward-backward coupling strength of ν1,2 ≈ 0.1κa."

    In the preceding paragraph the theory curves are generated by 'adjusting the photonic-molecule coupling strength µ, the ring-resonator detuning ∆rr, the optical loss rates, as well as the coherent optical forward-backward coupling rates ν1,2.' The reduced microwave-to-optical efficiency is part of the same dataset used to fit ν1,2, so saying it is 'well explained' by the fitted ν1,2 restates the fit rather than providing an independent prediction. The authors acknowledge the ambiguity with residual end-facet backscattering. This step is peripheral: the absolute efficiency and the independent g0 consistency check do not reduce to this fitted parameter.

full rationale

The paper's central quantitative claim is a measured off-chip transduction efficiency, calibrated through the explicit chain of Appendix D2, not a derivation from a fitted model. The vacuum coupling rate g0 = 2π × 406 Hz used in the transduction model is extracted independently from dc electro-optic tuning (Appendix E2) and the microwave loss rates from independent spectroscopy, so the agreement between the measured efficiencies and the model is a genuine, non-circular consistency check rather than a parameter renamed as a prediction. The cited BaTiO3 Pockels coefficient of 200 pm/V [36] is an external experimental result; the overlap of one co-author (D. Caimi) with the present paper does not make it circular, and the paper's own measurement finds a much lower r = 13 pm/V, which would be impossible if the external value were simply assumed. No uniqueness theorem or load-bearing self-citation chain is invoked. The only identifiable circular element is a secondary interpretive statement: the reduced microwave-to-optical signal in the backward direction is attributed to the forward-backward coupling rate ν1,2, but that rate is itself one of the parameters fitted to the transduction spectra. Because this fit does not support the headline efficiency or the independent g0 consistency check, the overall circularity is minor. Other noted weaknesses, such as the fiber-to-chip loss estimated at room temperature and the reliance on residual backscattering after a fiber break, are calibration and systematic-error concerns, not circular reductions.

Assumptions & free parameters 8 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claim is a measured demonstration, so the model-free and parameterized contributions are manageable. The main fitted model parameters are standard cavity electro-optic parameters (mu, loss rates, backscattering rates) and thermal model parameters (Q_TLS, alpha, T_c). The most ad hoc element is the sinusoidal angular dependence of the Pockels coefficient used in the g0 simulation, which is not directly verified in this device. No new physical entities are introduced.

free parameters (8)
  • Effective Pockels coefficient r = 13 pm/V
    Extracted from cryogenic optical dc-tuning slope d(omega_a)/dV = 2*pi*145 MHz/V (Appendix E2) and used to reconcile the measured transduction efficiency. It is an order of magnitude below the 200 pm/V assumed from ref [36].
  • Photonic molecule coupling 2*mu/2*pi = 4.7 GHz
    Determined from the room-temperature avoided crossing (Fig. 2f) and used as a fixed parameter in the transduction model (Table V).
  • Ring-ring detuning Delta_rr/2*pi = 0.4 GHz
    Adjusted in the S-matrix fit to the transduction spectra; affects the line shapes in Fig. 3 (Table V).
  • Forward-backward coupling rates |nu_1|/2*pi and |nu_2|/2*pi = 0.35 GHz and 0.15 GHz
    Fitted in the photonic-molecule model to reproduce the reflection-based transduction data; these rates determine the backscattering penalty in the microwave-to-optical direction (Table V).
  • Optical loss rates kappa_a,0/2*pi and kappa_a,ex/2*pi = 2 GHz and 0.85 GHz
    Fitted parameters in the transduction model that set the optical linewidths and, through them, the efficiency curves (Table V).
  • TLS quality factor Q_b,0,TLS = 2038
    Free parameter in the fit of the thermal frequency shift model (Eqs. F1-F3) to temperature-dependent microwave data (Table IV).
  • Kinetic inductance fraction alpha = 7.8%
    Free parameter in the BCS quasiparticle contribution to the thermal frequency shift model (Table IV).
  • Microwave external and internal loss rates kappa_b,ex and kappa_b,0 = 7 MHz and 10 MHz
    Measured from microwave reflection at 10 mK (Fig. 2g) and used to fix the microwave response in the transduction model.
assumptions (5)
  • standard math The electro-optic interaction is described by the Hamiltonian H_int = hbar*g0*(a_plus_dagger*a_minus + a_minus_dagger*a_plus)*(b + b_dagger) within the linearized input-output formalism.
    Standard cavity electro-optics model from refs [22-24,59]; used throughout Appendix B to compute the transduction S-matrix.
  • domain assumption The dc electro-optic tuning slope d(omega_a)/dV = 2*pi*145 MHz/V provides an upper bound for the microwave vacuum frequency-pulling factor G.
    Stated in Appendix E2 and used to estimate g0 = 406 Hz; assumes the dc bias field and the microwave field couple to the optical mode with the same spatial overlap.
  • ad hoc to paper The angular dependence of the Pockels coefficient in the ring follows a sinusoidal function with maxima every 90 degrees, reducing the effective overlap to alpha_overlap = 0.42.
    Introduced in Appendix A3 and Fig. 6 based on refs [36,40]; not independently measured in this specific device.
  • domain assumption The thermal shift of the microwave resonance is a sum of TLS and BCS quasiparticle contributions (Eqs. F1-F3).
    Standard models from refs [49,50,63]; used to fit temperature-dependent frequency shifts in Fig. 4e and extract TLS and quasiparticle parameters.
  • domain assumption The microwave extinction ratio during optical pumping can be calibrated as a proxy for a single effective temperature T_eff.
    Used in Sec. V to convert time-resolved extinction data into T_eff; the paper notes the dielectric and quasiparticle baths may have different temperatures, so T_eff primarily tracks the quasiparticle bath.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Bidirectional microwave-optical conversion with an integrated soft-ferroelectric barium titanate transducer." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/XVPDWD74

@misc{pith2026250109728,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Bidirectional microwave-optical conversion with an integrated soft-ferroelectric barium titanate transducer},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/XVPDWD74}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2501.09728}
}
abstract

Efficient, low-noise, and high-bandwidth transduction between optical and microwave photons is key to long-range quantum communication between distant superconducting quantum processors. Recent demonstrations of microwave-optical transduction using the broadband direct electro-optic (Pockels) effect in optical thin films made of AlN or LiNbO$_3$ have shown promise. To improve efficiency and added noise, materials with larger Pockels coefficients, such as the soft ferroelectrics BaTiO$_3$ or SrTiO$_3$, are required. However, these materials require adapted designs and fabrication approaches due to their nonlinear and, in some cases, hysteretic electro-optic response. Here, we engineer an on-chip, triply resonant transducer comprising low-loss BaTiO$_3$-on-SiO$_2$ waveguides monolithically integrated with a superconducting microwave resonator made of Nb. We demonstrate bidirectional microwave-optical transduction and reach total off-chip efficiencies of $1\times10^{-6}$ using pulsed pumping. Our novel device concept permits in-situ poling of the ferroelectric material without introducing excess microwave loss, using a fully subtractive fabrication process with superconducting air bridges. In addition, we investigate optically induced heating, revealing fast thermalization and quasiparticle resilience of the microwave resonator. Our transducer concept and fabrication process are applicable to other materials with a large bias-induced Pockels effect and pave the way for efficient, low-power quantum interconnects.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2501.09728 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Electro-optic transducer design for materials with nonlinear Pockels effect. (a-c) Diagrams of refractive index change ∆n vs. applied dc electric field E for (a) linear electro-optic materials AlN, LiNbO3, and non-linear electro-optic materials: ferroelectric BaTiO3 (b), and SrTiO3 in the quantum paraelectric phase (c). Grey arrows and dashed lines in (b) and (c) indicate working points at non-zero bias fields. (d, … view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. DC-biased triply resonant photonic molecule transducer. (a) False-colored optical micrograph of the photonic molecule trans￾ducer. Optical signals are evanescently coupled from the optical bus waveguide to the lower ring of the photonic molecule, which is evanes￾cently coupled to the upper ring at its opposite side. Symmetric electrodes for dc-tuning (orange) of the photonic molecule and microwave bus coupling (yell… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Bidirectional coherent triply resonant microwave-optical transduction. (a-d) Microwave-to-optical transduction. (a) Setup in which the transducer is driven by a microwave tone bin and an optical pump. The optical signal aout in backward direction is combined with a local oscillator (LO) and detected using heterodyne detection on an electronic spectrum analyzer (ESA). (b) Scattering diagram showing the microwave and … view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (22 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Microwave response under optical pump. (a) Experimental setup: A pump laser is pulsed using an acousto-optic modulator (AOM) and amplified with an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA). The pulse power is monitored using a fast photodetector and sent to the device either…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Pulsed transduction and power dependence. (a) For pulsed optical-to-microwave transduction, a blue-detuned probe laser is locked to the pump laser at a frequency offset ωmw = ωb. Each laser is pulsed using an acousto-optic modulator (AOM), and the pump laser is additio…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Model for angular dependence of Pockels effect. Model for the angular dependence of the Pockels effect (blue solid line) and visualization of the overlap factor αoverlap as the blue shaded area under the curve for (a) the transducer electrode and (b) the tuning electro…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Microwave mode. (a) 3d-finite element Ansys HFSS eigenmode simulation of the microwave mode field distribution. (b) Schematic of the electrical circuit with unfolded meander inductor and with lumped (ring) capacitances at each end. (c) Sketch of the λ/2-type field dist…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Participation ratio. (a) Standard equivalent circuit and (b) extended circuit representation of the transducer device. The ring capacitances Cring go from one inductor end to ground, and the stray capacitance from the inductor is modeled as parallel capacitances CL,mw,…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Geometric inductance and capacitance extraction us￾ing a parallel capacitance. (a) Ansys HFSS simulation setup view of the capacitive part of the circuit with patches (blue) to short the coupling electrodes to ground. (b) Out-of-plane pins (blue) con￾nected with a 2D-s…
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: b, the two ring resonators are coupled evanescently at rate µ, and resonator 1 is coupled to the optical bus waveguide at rate κ1,ex. Moreover, the fabricated waveguides exhibit im￾perfections such as particles on the surface, surface roughness or other scattering sit…
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Full transduction model. (a) Schematic of the device. (b) Effective mode coupling diagram [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p017_11.png]
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Coupled microwave mode schematic. The main mi￾crowave mode b1 is coupled to the bus waveguide at a rate κb,ex and is additionally coupled to a spurious mode b2 at a rate γ. The intrin￾sic loss rates of the two modes are κb1,0 and κb2,0, respectively. From this we dete…
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Fabrication flow. (a) initial material stack. (b) opti￾cal ridge waveguide with etched slab. (c) Oxide clad ridge waveg￾uide. (d) Added main electrode layer. (e) Added superconducting air bridges. (f) Chip edge prior to facet fabrication. (g) Dry-etched facet. (h) Dic…
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Cryogenic microwave-optical co-packaged chip. (a) Sample chip with optical edge-coupling gluing points. (b) Electrical on-chip circuit and wirebonds to printed circuit board. Lines to the inductor are highlighted in red, and to ring electrodes in yellow. HEMT +36.9 dB…
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Cryostat wiring with device under test. Microwave sig￾nals are delivered to the device through the drive input at the cryostat breakout (fridge BO) via coaxial cables and a series of attenuators, a circulator and a RF+DC mixer board. The reflected microwave signal is …
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Pulsed microwave characterization setup. the cw experiment is Laser 2. A portion of the light from Laser 2 is sent to the frequency referencing path, where a coarse Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) with a free spec￾tral range of about 2.5 GHz is used to monitor laser…
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Continuous wave transduction setup. AOM source TLPM_dev_out PLL1 VOA AOM FPC 1 pulsed pump 90 90 10 10 10 90 50 50 LO RX10 AOM VOA FPC 2 FPC combiner 10 90 pulsed probe FPC pol 99 1 150 MHz PD 95 5 DUT in fridge OSW_dev_out 1 2 3 4 logPD_B 5 95 FPC dev in OSW_FC_in au…
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Pulsed transduction setup. In this configuration, Laser 2 is the signal laser whose AOM is now pulsed using a transistor-transitor-logic (TTL) signal from a pulse generator. To achieve large peak powers, the pulsed optical signal of Laser 1, which now acts as the pump…
Figure 21
Figure 21. Figure 21: Detuning and loss and coupling rates vs. optical fre￾quency. (a) Ring-ring detuning and (b) back scattering rates as a function of optical frequency. (c) Resonant ring-ring and (d) exter￾nal bus coupling rate as a function of optical frequency. (e) Intrinsic loss rate…
Figure 22
Figure 22. Figure 22: Cryogenic electro-optic tuning efficiency. Linear fit to the Vbias tuning dependence of the optical resonance frequency around the standard working point Vbias = −100 V. The extracted slope is ∂ωa/∂V = 2π · 145 MHz V−1 . the fact that the polarity of the tuning is inv…
Figure 23
Figure 23. Figure 23: Post-cooldown room temperature tuning hystheresis and loss. Optical transmission for a (a) down- and (b) up-sweep of the tuning voltage. (c) Optical resonance frequency tuning and (d) intrinsic optical loss rate as a function of tuning voltage for up (orange) and down…
Figure 26
Figure 26. Figure 26: Bias dependence of microwave properties: device 6. (a) Microwave resonance frequency ωb and (b) intrinsic quality fac￾tor Qb,0 as a function of bias voltage Vbias. (c) External quality factor Qb,ex and (d) intrinsic quality factor Qb,0 as a function of mi￾crowave reso…
Figure 28
Figure 28. Figure 28: Microwave resonance shift and quality factor vs. tem￾perature. (a) Full and (b) reduced temperature range plot of relative resonance frequency shift ∆b/ωb and intrinsic microwave quality factor Qb,0 as a function of cryostat temperature Tfridge for (c) de￾vice 6 and (…
Figure 29
Figure 29. Figure 29: Optical-to-microwave transduction vs. tuning voltage. (a) Detected microwave-optical signal power as a function of tuning voltage Vtune and pump detuning ∆p. (b) Transduction spectra for selected tuning voltages as marked with the colored arrows in a. Parameter Value …
Figure 30
Figure 30. Figure 30: Slow microwave heating under pulsed operation. (a) Microwave reflection as a function of time and microwave probe fre￾quency ωmw around the pre-pulse dip frequency ωb,0. (b) Close-up of the first 50 µs of a. [1] Committee on Technical Assessment of the Feasibility and…

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Forward citations

Cited by 1 Pith paper

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score. Full citation record

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    physics.optics 2025-07 conditional novelty 6.0 of 10

    Monolithic barium titanate microresonators with intrinsic quality factor above one million and waveguide loss of 0.32 dB/cm are demonstrated using a redeposition-free dry etch.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

87 extracted references · 74 canonical work pages · cited by 1 Pith paper

  1. [1]

    The vacuum speed of light is c0 = 1 /√ϵ0µ0

    Field quantization First, we recall that the classical electromagnetic energy density ρem is defined as the absolute value of the Poynting vector [56], ρem = 1 2 (E · D + H · B) , (A1) 12 with electric field E, electric displacement field D = ϵ0ϵrE, vacuum permittivity ϵ0, and relative permittivity ϵr; and mag- netic field H, magnetic flux density B = µ0µ...

  2. [2]

    Electro-optic interaction Hamiltonian Based on refs. [22–24], we first consider the optical electric energy density and express it in terms of the displacement field Di = ϵij r Ej, ρel,opt = 1 2 ϵ0Ei optϵij r,optEj opt (A15) = 1 2 ϵ0Di opt ϵ−1 r,opt ij Dj opt. (A16) Here and in what follows, it is implicit that indices appearing twice are summed over. We ...

  3. [3]

    Separating longitudinal and cross-sectional integration Since the overlap only happens in the active material of the optical rings, we can separate the integration into a longitudi- nal (dz) and cross sectional part (dxdy). For the longitudinal integral along one optical ring resonator with radiusR, we get (neglecting curvature) Z rdz = rαoverlapLopt (A24...

  4. [4]

    7a), which is computation- ally expensive

    Microwave equivalent circuit An analogous normalization factor equation like (A28) holds for the microwave field as well, but requires simulating the whole microwave mode (Fig. 7a), which is computation- ally expensive. Instead, we only simulate the fraction of the microwave mode in the transducer electrode, and normalize it with the fraction of the energ...

  5. [5]

    We do this, by requiring a constant resonance frequency ωb of the transducer ωb = 1√ LC

    Incorporating scaling with material permittivity In order to fairly compare the vacuum coupling strength of the same device design and cross-sectional geometry but for different active materials with similar optical properties but sometimes vastly different permittivities (ϵr,LiNbO3 = 30, ϵr,BaTiO3 = 2 × 102, ϵr,SrTiO3 ≈ 2 × 104), we incorporate the scali...

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    We describe the system as a collection of resonant modes with annihilation operators Ai, resonance frequencies ωi, and internal loss rates κi,0

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Pith tools

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