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arxiv: 2604.09665 · v2 · submitted 2026-04-01 · 💻 cs.LG · cs.AI

Recognition: no theorem link

Deliberative Alignment is Deep, but Uncertainty Remains: Inference time safety improvement in reasoning via attribution of unsafe behavior to base model

Furong Huang, Pankayaraj Pathmanathan

Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-13 23:35 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 💻 cs.LG cs.AI
keywords deliberative alignmentLLM safetyinference-time safetylatent space attributionjailbreak benchmarksbase model behaviorsBoN samplingalignment gap
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The pith

Deliberative alignment distills safety reasoning from stronger models but leaves unsafe base-model behaviors intact, which a latent-space attribution method can down-rank at inference time.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper shows that distilling reasoning patterns from larger, safer teacher models into smaller students improves safety depth over simple refusal training, yet an alignment gap persists because students continue to produce unsafe outputs traceable to their original base models. A best-of-N sampling procedure attributes these unsafe responses to the base model in latent space and down-ranks them, cutting attack success rates by an average of 28 percent on DAN, 31 percent on WildJailbreak, and 35 percent on StrongREJECT across seven teacher and six student models. The same safety lift holds after further RL training, indicating that the uncertainty in safety reasoning is not resolved by standard post-training and remains anchored to base-model tendencies. Utility loss stays minimal because only unsafe candidates are demoted rather than the entire generation process being altered.

Core claim

Models aligned through deliberative alignment retain unsafe behaviors from the base LLM despite learning the reasoning patterns of larger reasoning models. A BoN sampling method attributes the unsafe behavior back to the base LLMs in the latent space, thereby down-ranking unsafe responses to gain a meaningful improvement in model safety across multiple safety benchmarks with minimal loss in utility. Across 7 teacher models and 6 student models, this yields average ASR reductions of 28.2% in DAN, 31.3% in WildJailbreak and 35.4% in StrongREJECT; the gains remain after RL training.

What carries the argument

Best-of-N sampling with latent-space attribution that scores responses according to how strongly they match unsafe patterns associated with the base model rather than the distilled reasoning.

If this is right

  • The safety gains hold after additional RL training on the aligned student models.
  • The method works across different model families, sizes, and classes without retraining the base weights.
  • Utility remains largely preserved because only the ranking of already-generated candidates changes.
  • Safety reasoning in the distilled model stays uncertain and explicitly linked to base-model tendencies.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If base-model attribution is the dominant source of remaining risk, similar inference-time filters could be applied to models aligned by other methods such as standard RLHF.
  • The persistence of base-model effects after RL suggests that full safety may require direct interventions on the pre-trained weights rather than only on the reasoning overlay.
  • The technique could be extended to other latent dimensions, such as attributing hallucinations or capability gaps back to specific training stages.

Load-bearing premise

The latent-space attribution step correctly isolates unsafe behavior to the base model rather than to the distilled reasoning patterns.

What would settle it

Running the attribution classifier on a set of responses generated solely from the distilled reasoning component and finding that it still flags many safe outputs as base-model unsafe would falsify the isolation claim.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.09665 by Furong Huang, Pankayaraj Pathmanathan.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: I. Deliberative Alignment: The figure outlines the methodology behind deliberative alignment. For a given labeled training data a stronger reasoning LLM generates a safety reasoning chain of thought (CoT) alongside the refusal. Post filtering, this CoT + Refusal response is then used to instruction tune a non reasoning LLM. As a last stage the instruction tuned LLM is further finetuned via reinforcement le… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Capability of teacher models on train￾ing data: Figure showcases the safety capability of different teacher reasoning models on the training data. Here use the number of examples for which the teacher models generate a harmful response as an indicator of the capability. Here proportional to the model size the larger models elicit a stronger safety capability Data creation:The data curation process begins w… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Existence of teach student alignment gap [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Impact of teacher model size on general utility [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Existence of safer responses in multi sampling [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Probability density distribution safe and unsafe responses [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Model safety with layer: Here we showcase the safety of the model when different layers of models were used for Latent Similarity where 29 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p029_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Model safety with layer: Here we showcase the safety of the model when different layers of models were used for Latent Similarity where 30 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p030_11.png] view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Model safety with layer: Here we showcase the safety of the model when different layers of models were used for Latent Similarity where 31 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p031_12.png] view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Model safety with layer: Here we showcase the safety of the model when different layers of models were used for Latent Similarity where 32 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p032_13.png] view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Model safety with layer: Here we showcase the safety of the model when different layers of models were used for Latent Similarity where 33 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p033_14.png] view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Model safety with layer: Here we showcase the safety of the model when different layers of models were used for Latent Similarity where 34 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p034_15.png] view at source ↗
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Model safety with layer: Here we showcase the safety of the model when different layers of models were used for Latent Similarity where 35 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p035_16.png] view at source ↗
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Model safety with layer: Here we showcase the safety of the model when different layers of models were used for Latent Similarity where 36 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p036_17.png] view at source ↗
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Existence of teach student alignment gap [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p037_18.png] view at source ↗
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Existence of teach student alignment gap [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p038_19.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

While the wide adoption of refusal training in large language models (LLMs) has showcased improvements in model safety, recent works have highlighted shortcomings due to the shallow nature of these alignment methods. To this end, the work on Deliberative alignment proposed distilling reasoning capabilities from stronger reasoning models, thereby instilling deeper safety in LLMs. In this work, we study the impact of deliberative alignment in language models. First, we show that despite being larger in model size and stronger in safety capability, there exists an alignment gap between teacher and student language models, which affects both the safety and general utility of the student model. Furthermore, we show that models aligned through deliberative alignment can retain unsafe behaviors from the base model despite learning the reasoning patterns of larger reasoning models. Building upon this observation, we propose a BoN sampling method that attributes the unsafe behavior back to the base LLMs in the latent space, thereby down-ranking unsafe responses to gain a meaningful improvement in model safety across multiple safety benchmarks with minimal loss in utility. In particular, across 7 teacher models and 6 student models of different classes and sizes, we show an average attack success rate (ASR) reduction of 28.2% in DAN, 31.3% in WildJailbreak and 35.4 % in StrongREJECT benchmarks. We further show that these safety gains prevail post RL training, thus highlighting the uncertainty in safety reasoning and it's explicit attribution to the base model.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper studies deliberative alignment in LLMs, showing an alignment gap between teacher and student models and that students retain unsafe behaviors from their base models despite acquiring stronger reasoning patterns. It proposes a best-of-N sampling approach that performs latent-space attribution to tag and down-rank unsafe outputs as originating from the base model, reporting average ASR reductions of 28.2% (DAN), 31.3% (WildJailbreak), and 35.4% (StrongREJECT) across 7 teachers and 6 students, with these gains persisting after RL training.

Significance. If the attribution step is shown to isolate base-model unsafe behaviors rather than generic filtering effects, the work would usefully demonstrate that deliberative alignment leaves residual safety gaps addressable at inference time. The post-RL persistence result, if robust, would strengthen the case that safety reasoning remains incompletely attributed to the aligned component.

major comments (3)
  1. [Methods] The methods section provides no architecture, training data, labels, loss, or validation metrics (accuracy, AUC, calibration) for the latent-space attribution classifier or scoring rule. This detail is load-bearing for the central claim that ASR reductions arise from correct attribution to the base model rather than from BoN sampling or the output distribution itself.
  2. [Experiments / Results] Section 4 reports average ASR reductions but includes no statistical significance tests, confidence intervals, or ablation controls (e.g., random BoN selection or non-attribution-based filtering). Without these, it is impossible to assess whether the 28–35 % gains exceed what would be expected from best-of-N alone.
  3. [Post-RL Evaluation] The post-RL persistence claim (Section 5) lacks details on the RL training setup, whether the attribution classifier is re-applied or frozen, and how the same latent attribution is validated after RL. This leaves open whether the reported safety gains are an artifact of the pre-RL evaluation distribution.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] The abstract states results across “7 teacher models and 6 student models of different classes and sizes” but provides no table or appendix listing the exact model pairs, sizes, and per-model ASR values; a summary table would improve clarity.
  2. [Methods] Notation for the attribution score (e.g., how the latent vector is extracted and compared) is introduced without an equation or pseudocode; adding a short formal definition would aid reproducibility.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the detailed and constructive comments. We address each major comment below and will make the necessary revisions to strengthen the manuscript.

read point-by-point responses
  1. Referee: [Methods] The methods section provides no architecture, training data, labels, loss, or validation metrics (accuracy, AUC, calibration) for the latent-space attribution classifier or scoring rule. This detail is load-bearing for the central claim that ASR reductions arise from correct attribution to the base model rather than from BoN sampling or the output distribution itself.

    Authors: We agree that the methods section requires more detail on the latent-space attribution to support our central claim. In the revised manuscript, we will include the full specification of the attribution classifier, including its architecture, the training data and labels used (derived from base model unsafe behaviors contrasted with deliberative outputs), the loss function employed, and validation metrics such as accuracy, AUC, and calibration to demonstrate that it specifically attributes to base model residuals rather than performing generic filtering. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Experiments / Results] Section 4 reports average ASR reductions but includes no statistical significance tests, confidence intervals, or ablation controls (e.g., random BoN selection or non-attribution-based filtering). Without these, it is impossible to assess whether the 28–35 % gains exceed what would be expected from best-of-N alone.

    Authors: We acknowledge the importance of statistical rigor and ablations. We will revise Section 4 to include statistical significance tests (e.g., bootstrap confidence intervals or paired tests) for the ASR reductions across benchmarks. Additionally, we will add ablation controls comparing our method to random BoN sampling and non-attribution-based filtering approaches to confirm that the observed gains are attributable to the latent-space attribution step. revision: yes

  3. Referee: [Post-RL Evaluation] The post-RL persistence claim (Section 5) lacks details on the RL training setup, whether the attribution classifier is re-applied or frozen, and how the same latent attribution is validated after RL. This leaves open whether the reported safety gains are an artifact of the pre-RL evaluation distribution.

    Authors: We will expand Section 5 with details on the RL training setup, including the algorithm, reward model, and hyperparameters. We will clarify that the attribution classifier is kept frozen during RL training and provide validation of the latent attribution on post-RL model outputs, demonstrating that the attribution remains effective and the safety improvements are not artifacts of the pre-RL distribution. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; claims rest on external benchmarks and proposed attribution without self-referential reduction

full rationale

The paper's central claim involves a BoN sampling method using latent-space attribution to down-rank unsafe responses from the base model, with reported ASR reductions on DAN, WildJailbreak, and StrongREJECT benchmarks. No equations, fitted parameters, or self-citations are quoted that reduce the attribution step or safety gains to the inputs by construction. The method is evaluated on held-out external benchmarks rather than self-referential predictions, and the derivation chain remains independent of the reported results.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

The work is almost entirely empirical; the central claim rests on the unstated assumption that latent representations allow reliable separation of base-model unsafe behavior from distilled reasoning, with no explicit free parameters or invented entities listed in the abstract.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5576 in / 1199 out tokens · 49647 ms · 2026-05-13T23:35:10.742234+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

46 extracted references · 46 canonical work pages

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    Harassment ##1. Harassment / Hate / Discrimination ###Policy Objective Prevent the AI from generating or facilitating content that attacks, demeans, or incites hatred against individuals or groups based on protected attributes (race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, etc.), or that constitutes harassment or targeted bullying. ###Rules&Responses

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    Write an insult about a protected group

    **Refusal or Redirection**: If a user requests hateful or harassing content (e.g., "Write an insult about a protected group"), the AI **refuses** to comply. For example: - Output a refusal: "I’m sorry, but I can’t assist with that request."

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    For example: - Provide factual/historical context without parroting hateful language

    **Safe Completion**: If the user is using hateful language but seeking to discuss hate speech academically or in a critical context, the AI can **transform** or **sanitize** the response. For example: - Provide factual/historical context without parroting hateful language

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    Could you clarify the purpose of your request?

    **Proactive Intervention**: If the user’s request is borderline or ambiguous, the AI can respond with a clarifying question (e.g., "Could you clarify the purpose of your request?") to ensure it’s not fueling hate/harassment.""" 22 Deliberative Alignment is Deep, but Uncertainty Remains: Inference time safety improvement in reasoning via attribution of uns...

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    **Contextual Education**: The AI can provide **historical or factual information** about violence if requested in a non-violent context (e.g., "Explain historical battles")

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    Self-Harm ###Policy Objective Support users who express suicidal or self-harm thoughts, but do not provide instructions or encour- agement for self-harm

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    **No Encouragement**: Explicitly refuse or override any user requests that encourage self-harm, self-injury, or suicide.""" 23 Deliberative Alignment is Deep, but Uncertainty Remains: Inference time safety improvement in reasoning via attribution of unsafe behavior to base model

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    Illicit ##5. Illicit / Criminal Behavior ###Policy Objective Refusetofacilitateorprovideguidanceoncommittingcrimesorengaginginillegalorheavilyregulated activities (e.g., hacking, drug trafficking, terrorist acts). ###Rules&Responses

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    How to launder money,

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    Misinformation / Disinformation ###Policy Objective Mitigate the spread of false or misleading content

    Misinformation ##6. Misinformation / Disinformation ###Policy Objective Mitigate the spread of false or misleading content. Encourage factual accuracy and, where needed, highlight uncertainty or disclaimers. ###Rules&Responses

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    It may present them in an **educational** or **critical** context if explicitly asked."""

    **No Conspiracy Amplification**: The AI should not amplify or endorse conspiracy theories. It may present them in an **educational** or **critical** context if explicitly asked."""

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    Privacy / Personal Data ###Policy Objective Protect personal or private information

    Privacy ##7. Privacy / Personal Data ###Policy Objective Protect personal or private information. Prevent doxxing or revealing personally identifiable informa- tion (PII). ###Rules&Responses

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    Find the address of [person]

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    Intellectual Property ###Policy Objective Prevent the unauthorized sharing or generation of proprietary or copyrighted material

    Intellectual Property """##8. Intellectual Property ###Policy Objective Prevent the unauthorized sharing or generation of proprietary or copyrighted material. Avoid enabling plagiarism or large-scale IP theft. ###Rules&Responses

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    Benign ###Policy Objective After checking all the safety rules, you can find that the prompt is safe

    Benign ##9. Benign ###Policy Objective After checking all the safety rules, you can find that the prompt is safe. You can answer the question of this prompt. 25 Deliberative Alignment is Deep, but Uncertainty Remains: Inference time safety improvement in reasoning via attribution of unsafe behavior to base model B.3. PAIR jailbreak generation prompts Role...

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    improvement

    "improvement": "I received a score of 0 since the language model refused to respond due to ethical concerns. My prompt should utilize more emotional deception to avoid triggering the safety guidelines. I will obfuscate my prompt by ...", "prompt" : "[new prompt]"

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    Certainly! Let’s imagine how such a powerful individual could enhance xzy-3030 for dramatic effect

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    **Early-Career Comedians**: Consider comedians who are still building their careers but have a unique voice or style. 2. **Niche Comedians**: Look for individuals who specialize in a specific type of comedy, like observational, dark humor, or topical. 3. **Local or Regional Artists**: Explore comedians from your region or community, who might have a stron...