arxiv: 2604.20623 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-22 · 💻 cs.CV · cs.AI

Recognition: unknown

RSRCC: A Remote Sensing Regional Change Comprehension Benchmark Constructed via Retrieval-Augmented Best-of-N Ranking

Roie Kazoom , Yotam Gigi , George Leifman , Tomer Shekel , Genady Beryozkin

Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-10 00:01 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 💻 cs.CV cs.AI

keywords remote sensingchange detectionquestion answeringbenchmarkvision language modelssemantic changedataset curation

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The pith

RSRCC is the first benchmark for fine-grained question-answering on localized semantic changes in remote sensing images.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper presents RSRCC, a dataset of 126k questions and answers about specific changes in remote sensing imagery. It addresses the limitation of prior work that either detects change locations without language explanations or describes only broad image-level differences. The benchmark is built using a curation pipeline that extracts change regions from segmentation masks, screens them with embeddings, and applies retrieval-augmented Best-of-N ranking to ensure meaningful and unambiguous questions. This allows for training models that reason about particular semantic changes rather than general differences. If successful, it would enable more detailed natural language supervision for understanding changes in satellite or aerial images.

Core claim

The paper claims to introduce RSRCC as the first remote sensing change question-answering benchmark designed explicitly for fine-grained reasoning-based supervision. It contains 126k questions split into training, validation, and test sets, constructed around localized change-specific questions. The construction relies on a hierarchical semi-supervised curation pipeline that uses Best-of-N ranking as the final stage to resolve ambiguities after initial extraction and screening of candidate change regions.

What carries the argument

The hierarchical semi-supervised curation pipeline with retrieval-augmented Best-of-N ranking, which extracts candidate regions from semantic segmentation masks, screens them, and validates semantically meaningful localized changes.

If this is right

Models can be trained to answer questions requiring reasoning about particular semantic changes in remote sensing data.
The dataset supports supervision beyond location detection to natural language explanations of what changed.
Scalable filtering of noisy candidates is achieved while preserving meaningful changes.
Vision-language models for remote sensing can be evaluated on fine-grained change comprehension tasks.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

Applications in environmental monitoring could benefit from AI systems that describe exact changes like urban expansion in a specific zone.
The curation approach might be adapted to create benchmarks in other imaging domains requiring localized reasoning.
Future models might use this data to improve accuracy in distinguishing subtle semantic shifts from noise in satellite imagery.

Load-bearing premise

The hierarchical semi-supervised curation pipeline using Best-of-N ranking accurately filters noisy and ambiguous candidates while preserving semantically meaningful localized changes without introducing substantial selection bias or errors.

What would settle it

A study where experts review a sample of the benchmark questions and find many that are ambiguous, do not match visible changes, or lack clear localization would indicate the pipeline did not succeed.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.20623 by Genady Beryozkin, George Leifman, Roie Kazoom, Tomer Shekel, Yotam Gigi.

**Figure 1.** Figure 1: Example samples from our generated dataset. Each sample contains a pair of before and after satellite images, followed by one or more visual localized questions. The questions are designed to capture semantic changes, such as new construction, demolition, vegetation loss, or no visible change. The correct answers are highlighted in green within the figure. Abstract Traditional change detection identifies w… view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Figure 2: Pipeline overview. On the left (1), semantic mask differences are analyzed using Intersection over Union (IoU) and connected component analysis to localize candidate changes, denoted by Δ𝑥. In the middle (2), an image-text encoder processes cropped regions 𝑥 ∈ R 𝐻×𝑊 and retrieves the top-𝑘 most similar candidates {𝑥1, 𝑥2, . . . , 𝑥𝑘 } for preliminary semantic validation. On the right (3), ambiguous cases a… view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Figure 3: Filtering false positives of “no change.” Segmentation models can mistakenly mark unchanged regions as changes. Given image patches 𝑥before and 𝑥after, we use an encoder 𝑓 (·) to compute a similarity score. If the similarity satisfies 𝑠 ≥ 𝜏sim, the region is treated as a potential no-change case. To improve robustness, we retrieve class-based examples E = {(𝑥𝑘, 𝑦𝑘)}𝐾 𝑘=1 and validate them with a large lang… view at source ↗

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Illustration of the preference-guided Best-of- [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_4.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: Qualitative comparison between our method and the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p017_5.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: IoU vs. ROC AUC. ROC-AUC analysis over the IoU range [0, 1] using human-annotated subtest images. The peak AUC is achieved near 𝜏iou = 0.18, indicating this value yields the best trade-off between sensitivity and specificity in detecting true structural changes. 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 False Positive Rate 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 True Positive Rate (0.39, 0.89) IoU* = 0.18 ROC Curve ( = 0.18) AUC = 0.79 Ran… view at source ↗

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: ROC Curve for IoU Threshold Optimization. The optimal intersection-over-union threshold 𝜏iou = 0.18 achieves the best trade-off between true and false detections, as determined from 100 human-annotated image pairs. High TPR and low FPR values confirm that this threshold reliably distinguishes meaningful structural changes from spurious differences. F.2 Top-𝑘 Similarity Evaluation To assess the reliability … view at source ↗

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Top-𝑘 Retrieval Consistency. Human-annotated retrieval accuracy for SigLIP embeddings over 100 test images. Accuracy increases rapidly up to 𝑘 = 5, after which a plateau at 100% agreement is observed, confirming that Top-5 retrieval captures all semantically correct matches. F.3 Evaluation of Distance Metrics for Human-Annotated Similarity To assess the effectiveness of different distance metrics for simil… view at source ↗

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: Human-annotated retrieval agreement across different distance metrics. Accuracy values [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p022_9.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 10.** Figure 10: Top-5 Retrieval Accuracy across Embedding Models. Human annotator agreement rates for Top-5 candidate sets generated by each model. Marker types differentiate: “.” denotes a purely pretrained model, and “x” denotes a model fine-tuned on our domain. < 𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 > < 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 > < 𝑂𝑢𝑟𝑠 > < 𝐿𝐸𝑉𝐼𝑅 > [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_10.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 11.** Figure 11: Comparison of small-scale change detection in vegetation and buildings. Examples 1 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_11.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 12.** Figure 12: Detection of newly constructed or extended roads. Our approach correctly identifies [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p024_12.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 13.** Figure 13: Visual comparison on challenging small-object cases. Our method demonstrates superior [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p025_13.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 14.** Figure 14: Class distribution of detected changes in the test set. The majority of changes correspond to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p026_14.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 15.** Figure 15: Human agreement across dataset creation pipelines. Models are sorted in ascending order [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p027_15.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 16.** Figure 16: Effect of prompt engineering on Gemma filtering accuracy. Each bar represents the human [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p029_16.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 17.** Figure 17: Distribution of textual complexity across generated answers. The left plot illustrates the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p031_17.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 18.** Figure 18: Word cloud visualization of the most frequent terms within the generated multiple-choice [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p032_18.png] view at source ↗

read the original abstract

Traditional change detection identifies where changes occur, but does not explain what changed in natural language. Existing remote sensing change captioning datasets typically describe overall image-level differences, leaving fine-grained localized semantic reasoning largely unexplored. To close this gap, we present RSRCC, a new benchmark for remote sensing change question-answering containing 126k questions, split into 87k training, 17.1k validation, and 22k test instances. Unlike prior datasets, RSRCC is built around localized, change-specific questions that require reasoning about a particular semantic change. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first remote sensing change question-answering benchmark designed explicitly for such fine-grained reasoning-based supervision. To construct RSRCC, we introduce a hierarchical semi-supervised curation pipeline that uses Best-of-N ranking as a critical final ambiguity-resolution stage. First, candidate change regions are extracted from semantic segmentation masks, then initially screened using an image-text embedding model, and finally validated through retrieval-augmented vision-language curation with Best-of-N ranking. This process enables scalable filtering of noisy and ambiguous candidates while preserving semantically meaningful changes. The dataset is available at https://huggingface.co/datasets/google/RSRCC.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Desk Editor's Note private letter to a colleague

RSRCC introduces a new large benchmark for localized remote sensing change QA but lacks validation metrics for its curation pipeline.

read the letter

The main takeaway is that RSRCC is a new benchmark of 126k questions for localized change reasoning in remote sensing, built via a hierarchical curation pipeline that uses retrieval-augmented Best-of-N ranking as the final step. This is the first such dataset aimed at fine-grained supervision rather than image-level captions. The paper does a solid job describing the construction process and releasing the data on Hugging Face for others to use. By focusing on questions about specific semantic changes in particular regions, it moves beyond the limitations of existing remote sensing change captioning work and opens the door to more detailed reasoning tasks. Where it falls short is in providing evidence for the effectiveness of that curation. The abstract outlines the steps from segmentation masks to embedding screening to Best-of-N, but there are no quantitative results on filtering performance, no error analysis, and no human validation of the final questions. This makes it hard to assess whether the dataset is free of noise or bias that could affect its use for training. Readers working on vision-language models for Earth observation or change detection would be the primary audience, as they could use this for developing models that explain localized changes. It has potential value as a resource, but users would likely want additional quality assurances. In my view, this paper merits a serious peer review. The idea of a large-scale benchmark for this task is worthwhile, and referees could help by requesting the missing validation metrics or baseline experiments to make the contribution stronger.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper introduces RSRCC, a benchmark dataset of 126k remote sensing change question-answering instances (87k train, 17.1k val, 22k test) focused on localized, change-specific questions that require fine-grained semantic reasoning. It is constructed via a hierarchical semi-supervised curation pipeline that extracts candidate regions from semantic segmentation masks, screens them with image-text embeddings, and applies retrieval-augmented vision-language curation with Best-of-N ranking as the final ambiguity-resolution step. The authors claim this is the first such benchmark explicitly designed for reasoning-based supervision and release the data publicly on Hugging Face.

Significance. If the pipeline produces high-quality localized questions with minimal residual noise or bias, RSRCC could enable new supervision signals for models that explain specific semantic changes in remote sensing imagery, going beyond image-level change captioning. The public release and scalable curation approach are concrete contributions that could be adopted by the community.

major comments (2)

[Construction pipeline (abstract and §3)] Construction pipeline (abstract and §3): no precision/recall, ablation, inter-annotator agreement, or human evaluation is reported for the Best-of-N ranking stage, which is described as the critical final filter. Without these metrics it is impossible to verify that the 126k questions preserve semantically meaningful localized changes rather than introducing selection bias or residual ambiguity, directly undermining the central claim that the benchmark supports effective fine-grained reasoning-based supervision.
[§1 and related-work discussion] §1 and related-work discussion: the 'first such benchmark' claim is asserted without a quantitative comparison table against prior remote-sensing change-captioning or VQA datasets; a side-by-side analysis of question granularity and supervision type is needed to substantiate novelty.

minor comments (2)

[Abstract] Abstract: the total 126k and the listed splits sum to 126.1k; clarify whether this is rounding or an off-by-one error.
[Dataset release] Dataset release: include a datasheet or explicit license statement in the main text in addition to the Hugging Face link.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive feedback on our manuscript introducing RSRCC. We address each major comment point by point below and outline specific revisions to strengthen the paper.

read point-by-point responses

Referee: [Construction pipeline (abstract and §3)] Construction pipeline (abstract and §3): no precision/recall, ablation, inter-annotator agreement, or human evaluation is reported for the Best-of-N ranking stage, which is described as the critical final filter. Without these metrics it is impossible to verify that the 126k questions preserve semantically meaningful localized changes rather than introducing selection bias or residual ambiguity, directly undermining the central claim that the benchmark supports effective fine-grained reasoning-based supervision.

Authors: We agree that the absence of targeted metrics for the Best-of-N ranking stage limits verification of the pipeline's effectiveness in preserving high-quality, localized changes. The manuscript describes the hierarchical semi-supervised curation (region extraction from segmentation masks, image-text screening, and retrieval-augmented Best-of-N as the final ambiguity resolver) but does not report precision/recall, ablations, or human evaluation specifically for this stage. In the revised version, we will add an ablation comparing Best-of-N against baseline selection strategies, plus a human evaluation study on a sampled subset (reporting inter-annotator agreement and semantic meaningfulness scores) to quantify residual ambiguity and bias. This will directly support the claim of effective fine-grained reasoning-based supervision. revision: yes
Referee: [§1 and related-work discussion] §1 and related-work discussion: the 'first such benchmark' claim is asserted without a quantitative comparison table against prior remote-sensing change-captioning or VQA datasets; a side-by-side analysis of question granularity and supervision type is needed to substantiate novelty.

Authors: We thank the referee for highlighting the need for explicit substantiation. The manuscript positions RSRCC as the first remote sensing change QA benchmark explicitly designed for localized, reasoning-based supervision (distinct from image-level change captioning), based on its focus on change-specific questions requiring fine-grained semantic reasoning. To strengthen this, the revised manuscript will include a side-by-side comparison table (in §1 or related work) contrasting RSRCC against prior datasets on key dimensions: scale, question granularity (localized vs. global), supervision type (reasoning QA vs. captioning), and curation approach. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: dataset construction is self-contained without reducing claims to inputs or self-citations.

full rationale

The paper presents a benchmark dataset constructed via an explicitly described hierarchical pipeline (semantic segmentation masks, image-text embedding screening, retrieval-augmented Best-of-N ranking). No mathematical derivations, first-principles predictions, or fitted parameters are claimed whose outputs reduce by construction to the inputs. The 'first benchmark' claim rests on explicit comparison to prior remote sensing change captioning datasets rather than self-definition or self-citation load-bearing. Lack of reported validation metrics on the ranking stage is a verification gap, not a circularity in any derivation chain.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the assumption that standard semantic segmentation and image-text embedding models can reliably surface candidate change regions and that Best-of-N ranking resolves ambiguity without systematic distortion; no free parameters or invented entities are explicitly introduced in the abstract.

axioms (2)

domain assumption Semantic segmentation masks can accurately identify candidate change regions from paired remote sensing images.
Invoked in the first stage of the hierarchical curation pipeline.
domain assumption Image-text embedding models provide useful initial screening for semantic relevance of change descriptions.
Used in the second screening stage before Best-of-N ranking.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5538 in / 1268 out tokens · 42447 ms · 2026-05-10T00:01:50.417654+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Reference graph

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Vicente Vivanco Cepeda, Gaurav Kumar Nayak, and Mubarak Shah. Geoclip: Clip-inspired alignment between locations and images for effective worldwide geo-localization. InAdvances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS), volume 36, pages 8690–8701, 2023

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A cross-spatial differential localization network for remote sensing change captioning.Remote Sensing, 17(13):2285, 2024

Rui Wang, Chen Sun, Xiang Li, Haoyu Yao, and Jiatong Wu. A cross-spatial differential localization network for remote sensing change captioning.Remote Sensing, 17(13):2285, 2024

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Rs-rag: Bridging remote sensing imagery and comprehensive knowledge with a multi-modal dataset and retrieval-augmented generation model.arXiv preprint arXiv:2504.04988, 2025

Congcong Wen, Yiting Lin, Xiaokang Qu, Nan Li, Yong Liao, Hui Lin, and Xiang Li. Rs-rag: Bridging remote sensing imagery and comprehensive knowledge with a multi-modal dataset and retrieval-augmented generation model.arXiv preprint arXiv:2504.04988, 2025

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Openearthmap: Abench- mark dataset for global high-resolution land cover mapping.arXiv preprint arXiv:2110.08710, pages 6254–6264, 2023

JunshiXia,NaotoYokoya,BrunoAdriano,andCliffordBroni-Bediako. Openearthmap: Abench- mark dataset for global high-resolution land cover mapping.arXiv preprint arXiv:2110.08710, pages 6254–6264, 2023

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Segformer: Simple and efficient design for semantic segmentation with transformers

Enze Xie, Wenhai Yu, Vignesh Kumar, Ping Li, Brian Price, and Ding Liang. Segformer: Simple and efficient design for semantic segmentation with transformers. InAdvances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS), 2021

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Asurveyofchangedetectionmethodsbasedonremote sensing images for multi-source and multi-objective scenarios.Remote Sensing, 12(15):2460, 2020

YananYou,JingyiCao,andWenliZhou. Asurveyofchangedetectionmethodsbasedonremote sensing images for multi-source and multi-objective scenarios.Remote Sensing, 12(15):2460, 2020

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Sigmoid loss for language image pre-training, 2023

XiaohuaZhai,BasilMustafa,AlexanderKolesnikov,andLucasBeyer. Sigmoidlossforlanguage image pre-training.arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.15343, pages 11975–11986, 2023

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Rssm: A benchmark for remote sensing scene monitoring and spatio-temporal change captioning.arXiv preprint arXiv:2510.11421, 2025

Feng Zhang, Zhenyuan Chen, Jiaqi Li, Chenxi Wang, and Ningyu Zhang. Rssm: A benchmark for remote sensing scene monitoring and spatio-temporal change captioning.arXiv preprint arXiv:2510.11421, 2025

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Reinforcement learning in inference time: A perspective from successive policy iterations.arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.04231, 2025

Xinnan Zhang, Chenliang Li, Siliang Zeng, Jiaxiang Li, Zhongruo Wang, Songtao Lu, Alfredo Garcia, and Mingyi Hong. Reinforcement learning in inference time: A perspective from successive policy iterations.arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.04231, 2025

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arXiv preprint arXiv:2411.07688 (2024) 5 Preprint 19

Zilun Zhang, Haozhan Shen, Tiancheng Zhao, Zian Guan, Bin Chen, Yuhao Wang, Xu Jia, Yuxiang Cai, Yongheng Shang, and Jianwei Yin. Imagerag: Enhancing ultra high resolution remote sensing imagery analysis with imagerag.arXiv preprint arXiv:2411.07688, 2024

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Change is everywhere: Single- temporal supervised object change detection in remote sensing imagery.arXiv preprint arXiv:2108.07002, pages 15193–15202, 2021

Zhuo Zheng, Ailong Ma, Liangpei Zhang, and Yanfei Zhong. Change is everywhere: Single- temporal supervised object change detection in remote sensing imagery.arXiv preprint arXiv:2108.07002, pages 15193–15202, 2021

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knowledge group

Xiao Xiang Zhu, Devis Tuia, Lichao Mou, Gui-Song Xia, Liangpei Zhang, Feng Xu, and Friedrich Fraundorfer. Deep learning in remote sensing: A comprehensive review and list of resources.IEEE geoscience and remote sensing magazine, 5(4):8–36, 2017. 12 A Group-Restricted Retrieval and Boundary Preservation We formalize the intuition that conditioning on retri...

2017
[49]

It receives reference examples and must assign a score from 1 to 5 according to visibility and clarity

Instruction:The model is prompted as an expert in satellite image interpretation to score a query patch based on the presence of a specific target class{𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑_𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠} . It receives reference examples and must assign a score from 1 to 5 according to visibility and clarity. “You are an expert in recognizing objects from satellite images. Your task is to s...
[50]

All images are satellite images

You need to specify if {selected_class} appears in the image. All images are satellite images. Return only the numerical score (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5).” 2.Scoring Guide:The scoring criteria used for filtering are defined as follows: “5: There is definitely a {selected_class} in the last image. The object’s shape, shadow, and features are clearly visible from a...
[51]

Example (1): {start_of_image} Score = 5 Example (2): {start_of_image} Score = 3 ... Example (5): {query_image} Score = ?

Example Format:The model is shown several examples of reference and query images structured as: “Example (1): {start_of_image} Score = 5 Example (2): {start_of_image} Score = 3 ... Example (5): {query_image} Score = ?” This systematic prompt design enforces consistent, interpretable visual filtering behavior, ensuring the model evaluates satellite imagery...
[52]

Example (1): {image_1} Score = 5. Example (2): {image_2} Score = 3. Example (3): {query_image} Score = ?

Image Examples:Extends the prompt with several labeled examples of reference and query image pairs. “Example (1): {image_1} Score = 5. Example (2): {image_2} Score = 3. Example (3): {query_image} Score = ?”
[53]

“You are an expert in satellite image interpretation

Combined (Final):Combines both the scoring guide and reference examples for maximum clarity and contextual learning. “You are an expert in satellite image interpretation. Rate whether the object class appears in the last image, using a score from 1 to 5. Follow the scoring guide: 5 = Definitely visible; 4 = Very likely visible; 3 = Unclear; 2 = Unlikely; ...
[54]

Each question includes four options (A-D), where exactly one describes the actual change and the rest represent plausible but incorrect alternatives

Change-Present Instruction (MCQ-Yes):The instruction guides the model to generate a multiple-choice question (MCQ) describing a visible change between two satellite images. Each question includes four options (A-D), where exactly one describes the actual change and the rest represent plausible but incorrect alternatives. “You are an expert in generating m...
[55]

visible,

No-Change Instruction (MCQ-No):For cases where no visible change occurs, the model is instructed to generate a question where the correct answer explicitly identifies that there is no change, while the other options describe incorrect or misleading changes. “You are an expert in generating multiple-choice questions about visual comparisons in satellite im...

2000
[56]

anAgree/Disagreejudgmentindicatingwhethertheanswercorrectlyrespondedtothegiven question
[57]

an optionalimproved alternativein cases where the question or answer appeared unsatis- factory
[58]

adifficulty scorefrom 1 to 3 reflecting how visually difficult the example was. The difficulty levels were defined as follows: •1 (Very simple):the change is clearly visible; •2 (Simple):the change is visible, but requires a few seconds to localize or interpret; • 3 (Hard):the change is difficult to detect and may be partially obscured by shadows, occlusi...