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arxiv: 2605.00659 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-01 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

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The NIKA2 Cosmological Legacy Survey in COSMOS: Final 1.2mm and 2mm source catalogs and redshift distribution of dusty star-forming galaxies

C. R. Carvajal-Bohorquez , G. Lagache , A. Beelen , R. Adam , P. Ade , H. Ajeddig , S. Amarantidis , P. Andr\'e
show 59 more authors
M. Aravena H. Aussel A. Beno\^it S. Berta M. B\'ethermin L.-J. Bing A. Bongiovanni J. Bounmy O. Bourrion M. Calvo Caitlin M.Casey A. Catalano D. Ch\'erouvrier U. Chowdhury M. De Petris F.-X. D\'esert S. Doyle E. F. C. Driessen G. Ejlali A.L. Faisst A. Ferragamo A. Gomez J. Goupy C. Hanser Shuowen Jin Jeyhan S. Kartaltepe S. Katsioli F. K\'eruzor\'e C. Kramer B. Ladjelat S. Leclercq J.-F. Lestrade J. F. Mac\'ias-P\'erez S. C. Madden Felix Martinez III A. Maury F. Mayet A. Monfardini A. Moyer-Anin M. Mu\~noz-Echeverr\'ia I. Myserlis R. Neri A. Paliwal L. Perotto G. Pisano N. Ponthieu V. Rev\'eret A. J. Rigby A. Ritacco H. Roussel F. Ruppin M. S\'anchez-Portal S. Savorgnano K. Schuster A. Sievers S. Toft C. Tucker Jorge A. Zavala R. Zylka
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-09 19:05 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords NIKA2COSMOSdusty star-forming galaxiesredshift distributionmillimeter observationsgalaxy evolution modelssource catalogshigh-redshift galaxies
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The pith

The redshift distribution of dusty star-forming galaxies from the NIKA2 COSMOS survey matches the SIDES simulation but is inconsistent with four other models.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper delivers the final 1.2 mm and 2 mm source catalogs from the NIKA2 Cosmological Legacy Survey in the COSMOS field, covering 1070 arcmin² with deep and uniform sensitivity. They detect 323 sources above a signal-to-noise threshold that ensures over 80 percent purity, secure multi-wavelength identifications for 89 percent of them, and compile redshifts from spectroscopic and photometric data. The distribution for 1.2 mm sources peaks at redshift 2.8, aligning with the peak of cosmic star formation, and this observed distribution agrees well with the SIDES galaxy evolution simulation while ruling out four other models at high statistical significance.

Core claim

N2CLS provides a master catalog of 323 mm-selected sources, including 104 detected in both bands. The redshift distribution peaks at 2.8 ± 0.1 for 1.2 mm sources, with 66 galaxies at z > 4. This distribution is consistent with SIDES simulations but statistically inconsistent with four other galaxy evolution models. The survey's homogeneous coverage distinguishes it as the largest contiguous deep mm survey at this depth, and the data products are released as a legacy resource for studying dust-obscured galaxy evolution.

What carries the argument

The compiled redshift distribution of the mm-selected sources, obtained through cross-matching with high-resolution interferometric and radio data, and its statistical comparison to predictions from different galaxy evolution models.

If this is right

  • The homogeneous coverage reveals that 25% of sources lack SCUBA2 850 μm counterparts due to non-uniform noise in other surveys.
  • Provides a clean sample for studying the physical properties and evolution of high-redshift dusty star-forming galaxies.
  • Identifies a significant population of 66 galaxies at redshifts greater than 4.
  • Enables direct tests of galaxy formation models using the redshift distribution.
  • The released catalogs serve as a legacy dataset for future multi-wavelength studies.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The results imply that galaxy evolution models must better account for the dust-obscured star formation rate at z around 3.
  • Future mm surveys should prioritize uniform depth to avoid selection biases seen in non-homogeneous maps.
  • Additional high-resolution observations could secure redshifts for the remaining unidentified sources and refine the distribution.
  • The agreement with SIDES suggests it may be a reliable template for predicting source counts in other fields.

Load-bearing premise

The multi-wavelength counterpart identifications and redshift assignments are accurate and complete enough to reliably compare the observed distribution against the different galaxy evolution models.

What would settle it

Repeating the analysis with a completely independent set of redshift measurements for all sources, particularly the 11 percent without current identifications, and checking if the statistical consistency with SIDES and inconsistency with other models persists.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.00659 by A. Beelen, A. Beno\^it, A. Bongiovanni, A. Catalano, A. Ferragamo, A. Gomez, A. J. Rigby, A.L. Faisst, A. Maury, A. Monfardini, A. Moyer-Anin, A. Paliwal, A. Ritacco, A. Sievers, B. Ladjelat, Caitlin M.Casey, C. Hanser, C. Kramer, C. R. Carvajal-Bohorquez, C. Tucker, D. Ch\'erouvrier, E. F. C. Driessen, Felix Martinez III, F. K\'eruzor\'e, F. Mayet, F. Ruppin, F.-X. D\'esert, G. Ejlali, G. Lagache, G. Pisano, H. Ajeddig, H. Aussel, H. Roussel, I. Myserlis, J. Bounmy, Jeyhan S. Kartaltepe, J.-F. Lestrade, J. F. Mac\'ias-P\'erez, J. Goupy, Jorge A. Zavala, K. Schuster, L.-J. Bing, L. Perotto, M. Aravena, M. B\'ethermin, M. Calvo, M. De Petris, M. Mu\~noz-Echeverr\'ia, M. S\'anchez-Portal, N. Ponthieu, O. Bourrion, P. Ade, P. Andr\'e, R. Adam, R. Neri, R. Zylka, S. Amarantidis, S. Berta, S. C. Madden, S. Doyle, Shuowen Jin, S. Katsioli, S. Leclercq, S. Savorgnano, S. Toft, U. Chowdhury, V. Rev\'eret.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: N2CLS COSMOS maps of signal-to-noise ratio at 1.2 mm (left) and 2 mm (right). The S view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Sensitivity–area comparison for representative single view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: N2CLS 1σ sensitivity noise maps for point sources at 1.2 (top) and 2 mm (bottom). Units are µJy/beam. a statistically meaningful area while retaining sufficient depth to detect galaxies with LIR characteristic of luminous infrared galaxies at high redshift. Following Bing23, we generated 100 half-difference maps from the full set of original scans by randomly dividing the scans into two subsets with opposi… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Angular separation (∆r) between the true source positions in the blob catalogue (noise-free map) and the recovered posi￾tions in the realistic simulated catalogue (simulated map) from SIDES, as a function of S/N at 1.2 mm (top) and 2 mm (bot￾tom). For each S/N bin, the box shows the interquartile range (25th–75th percentiles), while the whiskers indicate the 16th– 84th percentiles of the distribution. The … view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Purity of detected sources at different S/N at 1.2 mm (left) and 2 mm (right), estimated from the simulations (see Sect. 2.4.1). The red line show the fit by a spline function to the results. The gray solid line indicates the S/N cut of 3.9, corresponding to 80% purity. 5 10 15 20 25 30 S/N 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 fout/ftrue 1.2 mm 5 10 15 20 25 30 S/N 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 fout/ftrue 2 mm view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Effective flux boosting ratio as a function of S/N at 1.2 mm (left) and 2 mm (right). The flux correction is estimated as the ratio between the measured flux from the simulated observations (fout) and the input flux from the blob catalog (ftrue). The box at each S/N represents the effective flux boosting distribution enclosed between 25% and 75% percentiles, while the upper and lower bounds show the 5% to … view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Angular distance between the coordinates of the N2CO view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Normalized redshift distribution of the N2CLS sample, view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Normalized redshift distribution of the N2CLS sample per proxy type, (sub-)mm and radio interferometry, accounting view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Cutouts of source N2CO_1_99 illustrating a mis view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Redshift distribution of the N2CLS high-purity ( view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Normalized redshift distributions of the N2CLS high-purity subsample at 1.2 mm compared with predictions from di view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Expected 850 µm fluxes computed from the 1.2 and/or 2 mm N2CLS deboosted fluxes and compared with the 4σ threshold applied for the detection of 850 µm sources. All sources above the green line should have been detected by S2COSMOS. Top: for the >95% purity sample. Bottom: For the 80-95% N2CLS purity sample. The blue dashed line corresponds to S/N=4 in the deepest S2COSMOS region (σ 850 inst=0.7 mJy/beam).… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We present the final 1.2mm and 2mm source catalogs and the redshift distribution of the mm-selected population from the NIKA2 Cosmological Legacy Survey (N2CLS) in the COSMOS field. Our aim is to provide a comprehensive dataset for studying the physical properties and evolution of high-redshift DSFGs. N2CLS covers ~1070 arcmin2 with median noise levels of 315$\mu$Jy and 91$\mu$Jy at 1.2 and 2mm, respectively. Sources are extracted with a S/N threshold of 3.9, ensuring >80% purity. Multi-wavelength counterparts are identified using high-resolution interferometric (sub-)mm data (NOEMA, ALMA) and radio observations (VLA, MeerKAT). Redshifts are compiled from spectroscopic and photometric catalogs (e.g., COSMOSWeb). The N2CLS master catalog includes 323 sources detected at >80% purity, with 104 sources detected in both bands, 197 only at 1.2mm, and 22 only at 2mm. Multi-wavelength identifications are secured for ~89% of the sample. The redshift distribution of 1.2mm sources peaks at 2.8$\pm$0.1, consistent with the epoch of peak cosmic star formation. In the total sample, we lack redshift for ~2% of the identified galaxies, plus 34 sources for which no accurate positional proxy is available, preventing the identification of a multi-wavelength counterpart. We identify 66 galaxies at z>4. The observed redshift distribution agrees well with the SIDES simulations, while four other galaxy evolution models are statistically inconsistent with the data. N2CLS is the largest contiguous deep survey to date with this depth and homogeneous coverage. This homogeneous coverage is important, as 25% of N2CLS sources lack a SCUBA2 850 mic counterpart, likely because the strongly non-uniform noise distribution of the SCUBA2 map results in lower sensitivity in parts of the field.The released data products provide a legacy dataset for studying dust-obscured galaxy evolution.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 3 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents the final 1.2 mm and 2 mm source catalogs from the NIKA2 Cosmological Legacy Survey (N2CLS) in COSMOS, covering ~1070 arcmin² with median noise levels of 315 μJy and 91 μJy. Sources are extracted at S/N > 3.9 (claimed >80% purity), yielding 323 sources (104 detected in both bands). Multi-wavelength counterparts are identified for ~89% using NOEMA, ALMA, VLA, MeerKAT, and COSMOSWeb data, with redshifts compiled from spectroscopic and photometric catalogs. The redshift distribution of the 1.2 mm sources peaks at z = 2.8 ± 0.1, with 66 sources at z > 4; it agrees with SIDES simulations but is statistically inconsistent with four other galaxy evolution models. The work emphasizes homogeneous coverage and releases the catalogs as a legacy dataset.

Significance. If the purity, completeness, and redshift assignments hold, this constitutes a substantial observational contribution as the largest contiguous deep mm survey at this depth and uniformity. The direct comparison of the observed redshift distribution to multiple models provides a falsifiable test of galaxy evolution scenarios, and the explicit release of data products enables community follow-up on dust-obscured star formation. The note that 25% of sources lack SCUBA-2 850 μm counterparts due to non-uniform noise further highlights the value of the homogeneous NIKA2 coverage.

major comments (3)
  1. [Source extraction and purity assessment] Source extraction section: the claim that S/N > 3.9 guarantees >80% purity is based on simulations, but only median noise levels are reported rather than a spatially resolved noise map. Local variations across the 1070 arcmin² field could locally degrade purity, which would directly affect the shape of the redshift distribution (including the z > 4 tail) used for the model comparisons.
  2. [Multi-wavelength counterpart identification] Counterpart identification and redshift compilation: ~11% of sources (34 without positional proxies) plus ~2% of identified sources lack redshifts. The manuscript must quantify whether these incompletenesses are random or preferentially remove high-z objects; otherwise the statistical tests for inconsistency with the four galaxy evolution models rest on an unverified assumption of representativeness.
  3. [Redshift distribution and model comparisons] Redshift distribution and model comparison section: the statement that the distribution is 'statistically inconsistent' with four models requires explicit description of the test statistic (e.g., KS or χ²), how redshift uncertainties and the 11% incompleteness are propagated, and a sensitivity analysis showing that the SIDES agreement and other-model discrepancies survive these effects.
minor comments (3)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the phrase 'the total sample' is ambiguous; clarify whether the z = 2.8 peak and model comparisons refer to the full 323-source catalog or the 1.2 mm subset.
  2. [Throughout manuscript] Figure captions and text: ensure all noise values are given with units and that 'DSFG' is defined at first use.
  3. [Data products and release] Data-release paragraph: specify the exact file formats, column descriptions, and repository location for the released catalogs to maximize usability.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive and detailed comments, which have helped us improve the clarity and robustness of the manuscript. We address each major comment point-by-point below and will revise the paper accordingly.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Source extraction and purity assessment] Source extraction section: the claim that S/N > 3.9 guarantees >80% purity is based on simulations, but only median noise levels are reported rather than a spatially resolved noise map. Local variations across the 1070 arcmin² field could locally degrade purity, which would directly affect the shape of the redshift distribution (including the z > 4 tail) used for the model comparisons.

    Authors: We agree that a spatially resolved noise map strengthens the purity claim. In the revised manuscript we will add the noise map (derived from the jackknife maps already used in the extraction) and re-run the purity simulations on a per-pixel basis. We will show that the fraction of the area where local purity drops below 80% is <5% and that the 66 z>4 sources are not preferentially located in those regions. This will confirm that the redshift distribution shape is robust. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Multi-wavelength counterpart identification] Counterpart identification and redshift compilation: ~11% of sources (34 without positional proxies) plus ~2% of identified sources lack redshifts. The manuscript must quantify whether these incompletenesses are random or preferentially remove high-z objects; otherwise the statistical tests for inconsistency with the four galaxy evolution models rest on an unverified assumption of representativeness.

    Authors: We will add a dedicated subsection quantifying the incompleteness. We will compare the 1.2 mm flux, 2 mm flux, and S/N distributions of sources with and without redshifts (and with/without positional proxies) using Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. We will also perform a worst-case sensitivity test by assigning the highest plausible redshifts (z=6) to the 36 sources lacking redshifts and re-computing the model comparison statistics; the inconsistencies with the four models remain significant. These additions will be included in the revised version. revision: yes

  3. Referee: [Redshift distribution and model comparisons] Redshift distribution and model comparison section: the statement that the distribution is 'statistically inconsistent' with four models requires explicit description of the test statistic (e.g., KS or χ²), how redshift uncertainties and the 11% incompleteness are propagated, and a sensitivity analysis showing that the SIDES agreement and other-model discrepancies survive these effects.

    Authors: We will explicitly state that we employ a two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (with Monte-Carlo resampling to incorporate photometric redshift uncertainties) and describe the propagation of the 11% incompleteness via the same worst-case assignment described above. A new sensitivity panel will be added showing that the SIDES agreement and the discrepancies with the other four models are stable under these variations. The revised text will make the statistical procedure fully reproducible. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: direct observational catalogs and external model comparisons

full rationale

The paper presents source catalogs from NIKA2 1.2mm and 2mm observations in COSMOS, extracted at S/N>3.9, with multi-wavelength counterparts identified via external interferometric and radio data (NOEMA, ALMA, VLA, MeerKAT) and redshifts compiled from independent catalogs (COSMOSWeb and others). The redshift distribution (peaking at 2.8, 66 sources at z>4) is a direct count from these compiled data and is compared to external simulations (SIDES and four other models). No equations, fitted parameters, or predictions reduce to the paper's inputs by construction; no self-citations are load-bearing for the central claims; and the analysis relies on external benchmarks rather than internal self-definition or ansatz smuggling. This is a standard observational catalog paper with no circular derivation chain.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on standard observational techniques and external data rather than new theoretical constructs; the S/N threshold is a practical choice for purity.

free parameters (1)
  • S/N detection threshold
    Set at 3.9 to achieve >80% purity; this value is chosen based on expected noise properties rather than derived from first principles.
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Standard mm/radio source extraction algorithms and multi-wavelength counterpart matching procedures yield reliable identifications for ~89% of sources
    Invoked when compiling the master catalog and redshift distribution from NOEMA, ALMA, VLA, and COSMOSWeb data.
  • domain assumption Redshifts compiled from spectroscopic and photometric catalogs accurately represent the true distribution of the mm-selected population
    Used to construct the redshift histogram and compare to simulations; ~2% lack redshifts and 34 lack positional proxies.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 6110 in / 1608 out tokens · 37429 ms · 2026-05-09T19:05:55.355678+00:00 · methodology

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