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arxiv: 2605.00990 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-01 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

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NEFERTITI: Linking early galaxy formation to the assembly of the Milky Way

Ioanna Koutsouridou , Stefania Salvadori , \'Asa Sk\'ulad\'ottir , Viola Gelli , Elka Rusta , Lapo Querci , David S. Aguado , Alice Mori
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-09 18:40 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords galaxy formationfirst starsMilky Way assemblychemical enrichmentmetal-poor starsJWST observationsdwarf galaxiescosmological simulations
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The pith

The NEFERTITI model shows that the Milky Way's metal-poor stars largely come from material accreted from a few destroyed early dwarf galaxies, while also reproducing the JWST Hebe galaxy at redshift 11 as a pure system of the first stars.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper applies the NEFERTITI galaxy formation model to high-resolution simulations of Milky Way-like systems to follow the formation of the earliest stars in small dark matter haloes and the patchy chemical enrichment they produce. It finds that these early systems act as building blocks whose descendants today span a wide range of metallicities, with the accreted component from destroyed dwarfs accounting for nearly all stars below a metallicity of -3 even though most total stellar mass formed inside the main galaxy. The same calculations match the observed properties of the distant galaxy Hebe detected by JWST, supporting the view that it formed only from the first generation of stars. A reader would care because the work gives a single framework that ties together the chemical record in nearby stars with the appearance of galaxies in the early universe.

Core claim

Using a new implementation of the NEFERTITI model coupled to high-resolution dark-matter simulations of Milky Way analogues, the work shows that Population III star formation begins at redshift approximately 27, peaks between 10 and 15, and continues down to redshift less than 5, producing systems with stellar masses from 10 to 500000 solar masses. Present-day descendants of these stars range from metallicities below -9 to about -1, with the most metal-poor ones typically enriched by only one to four low-energy supernova progenitors. Although 90 percent of the total stellar mass forms in situ, the accreted component dominates below metallicity -1 and accounts for nearly all stars below -3; a

What carries the argument

The NEFERTITI galaxy formation model, which resolves minihaloes hosting the first stars and self-consistently tracks inhomogeneous ionization and chemical enrichment from supernovae.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same modeling approach could be applied to other galaxies in the Local Group to test whether the dominance of a few massive progenitors at low metallicity is common.
  • The persistence of Population III formation down to redshift 5 suggests that signatures of the first stars may appear in galaxies observed at intermediate redshifts.
  • Kinematic and chemical tagging of the most metal-poor stars in the Milky Way halo could identify which specific dwarf progenitors contributed them.
  • Future high-redshift surveys can use the predicted properties of pure Population III systems to select candidates for spectroscopic follow-up.

Load-bearing premise

The assumptions about the efficiency and feedback strength of low-energy supernovae in the smallest early haloes, together with the details of how enrichment occurs unevenly, must be correct for the simulated descendants to match the observed metallicities down to values below -9.

What would settle it

A detailed spectrum of the Hebe galaxy that shows either higher overall metallicity or abundance patterns incompatible with enrichment by only a few low-energy supernovae would falsify the claim that it is a pure Population III system.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.00990 by Alice Mori, \'Asa Sk\'ulad\'ottir, David S. Aguado, Elka Rusta, Ioanna Koutsouridou, Lapo Querci, Stefania Salvadori, Viola Gelli.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: The filling factor of ionized regions in the simulated MW volume, as a function of redshift. The black line shows the median of the 31 DM simulations, while the shaded area marks the range between the earliest and latest reionization histories. Our predictions agree well with other models (coloured lines). 2.4.1. Photo-dissociation of H2 We approximate LW feedback as a spatially uniform back￾ground that se… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Projection of ionized bubbles (left) and SN-driven metal-enriched bubbles (right) at 𝑧 = 10 for the Caterpillar merger tree Cat-10. Cat-10 has a MW–like assembly history, with the last major merger (mass ratio >1:3) at 𝑧 > 1.5. Note that SN bubbles may overlap, while ionized bubbles do not (see Sec. 2.4). Pop III star-forming halos at this snapshot, shown with red stars, lie outside the metal-enriched volu… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Top: Differential CEMP fractions of the 31 MW ana￾logues (coloured lines). Datapoints show the observed fractions of Placco et al. (2014) and Yong et al. (2013) for Galactic halo stars. Both are corrected for surface-carbon depletion along the red-giant branch, the latter adopting the luminosity criterion of Aoki et al. (2007). Shaded areas show the CEMP fraction of SAGA stars in LTE and non-LTE (see text)… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Top: Median star formation rate across the 31 Caterpillar boxes, as a function of redshift, for Pop II/I stars (black), all Pop III stars (red) and Pop III stars formed in minihalos (𝑇vir < 2 × 104 K; green). Solid lines show the SFR integrated over all halos in each volume, while dashed lines show only the SFR in the progenitors of the main halo. Bottom: Median SN rate across the 31 Caterpillar boxes, as … view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Distribution of all metal-poor stars at 𝑧 = 0 in our MW analogues on the [C/Fe]–[Fe/H] diagram. Top left: bins where more than 50% of metals, on average, have been inherited by either Pop III faint SNe and ccSNe (yellow), high energy SNe and hypernovae (blue), PISNe (red) or Pop II/I SNe progenitors (including both ccSNe and Type Ia SNe; gray). Top right: fraction of metals contributed from external enrich… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Average number of pure Pop III descendants, i.e., stars inheriting > 90% of their metals from Pop III progenitors, as a function of the mass of the host halo in which they formed. Different colors denote enrichment by faint and core-collapse SNe (yellow), high-energy SNe and hypernovae (blue), and PISNe (red). Dashed lines show the number of pure descendants for which > 50% of their metals came from extern… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: displays the age-metallicity relation (AMR) of all MW stars at 𝑧 = 0, averaged across the 31 Caterpillar merger trees. We find that the majority of stars, which formed along the MW’s main progenitor branch (dark red area), exhibit a nearly flat AMR at lookback times ≲ 11−11.5Gyr (𝑧 ≲ 2.5− 3), spanning [Fe/H] abundances of approximately ±0.7 dex around solar at all ages. This is consistent with the observed… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Average age distribution of metal-poor stars ([Fe/H] < −1) with different fractions of Pop III enrichment. removed either by photoevaporation in an ionized region or by SN feedback. Following the merger, the combined system reaches a higher virial temperature, allowing the metal-poor gas brought in by the first halo to resume forming stars view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Median cumulative number of luminous (𝑀∗ > 0) galax￾ies accreted onto the MW as a function of their stellar mass (orange) and virial mass (blue) at the time of merger. The shaded area indi￾cates the full range spanned by the 31 merger trees. Included are the estimates of Kruijssen et al. (2019, 2020), Fattahi et al. (2020) and Deason et al. (2023). 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Mergerredshift 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Cumulative fraction of accreted galaxies as a function of merger redshift, split by their stellar mass as indicated by the colour. 5.2. The Milky Way Assembly History In view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Formation of stars in the accreted galaxies: analogues of UFDs (top), dSphs (middle), and massive dwarfs (bottom). Colored lines show the fraction of stars that formed in halos of different virial masses, 𝑀form vir , as a function of [Fe/H]. 5.3. Origin of the Metal-Poor Stars Let us now focus on the chemical imprint of these accreted systems to the MW population view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Bottom: Median metallicity distribution function of the 31 MW analogues at 𝑧 = 0 (black line), along with the median contributions from stars formed in-situ (gray area) and accreted from mergers with galaxies of different stellar masses (coloured lines). Top: Cumulative fractional contribution of the in-situ stars and accreted components to the total MDF. to the metal-poor tail, providing 10% and 18% of t… view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Median comoving Pop III SFR density in the 31 Caterpil￾lar boxes (thick red line), compared with predictions from Mebane et al. (2018); Hegde & Furlanetto (2025); Ventura et al. (2025); Liu & Bromm (2021); Venditti et al. (2023); Trenti & Stiavelli (2009); Sarmento et al. (2019); Ventura et al. (2024); Pallottini et al. (2014); Hartwig et al. (2024); Magg et al. (2018); Xu et al. (2016); Jaacks et al. (20… view at source ↗
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Metallicity distribution function of a Caterpillar MW-analogue at 𝑧 = 0, with (black line) and without (red line) accounting for Type Ia SNe. APPENDIX A. OBSERVATIONAL PROPERTIES OF THE MW Here, we provide the literature references for the observational estimates of the MW properties at 𝑧 = 0 listed in view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We use a new implementation of the NEFERTITI galaxy formation model, coupled to $\sim 30$ high-resolution Caterpillar dark-matter simulations of Milky Way (MW) analogues, to connect early galaxy formation with the MW's assembly down to $z=0$. Our locally-constrained model resolves minihaloes hosting the first PopIII stars and self-consistently tracks inhomogeneous ionization and chemical enrichment. PopIII star formation begins at $z\simeq27$, peaks at $z\simeq10-15$, and persists down to $z\lesssim5$, producing PopIII systems with $M_*\sim10-5\times10^5\:{\rm M_\odot}$. The present-day descendants of PopIII stars span ${\rm [Fe/H]<-9}$ to ${\rm [Fe/H]\approx-1}$, with the most metal-poor stars typically enriched by a few (1-4) low-energy supernova progenitors. Pair-instability supernova descendants more commonly form in massive haloes ($M_{\rm vir}>10^8\:{\rm M_\odot}$), often externally enriched, reflecting the strong feedback and delayed recovery following energetic explosions. These early systems serve as building blocks for the present-day Galaxy's metal-poor component: although 90$\%$ of the total stellar mass formed in situ, the accreted component dominates at $[{\rm Fe/H}]<-1$ and accounts for nearly all stars with $[{\rm Fe/H}]<-3$. This accreted population is largely built by a few ($\sim5$) massive ($M_*>10^8\:{\rm M_\odot}$) destroyed dwarfs, but lower-mass systems become increasingly important at low metallicities, with ultra-faint and classical dSph analogues contributing $\sim25\%$ at $[{\rm Fe/H}]<-3$. Our model simultaneously reproduces the properties of metal-poor MW stars and the JWST "Hebe" galaxy at $z\sim11$, supporting its identification as a pure PopIII system. Ultimately, NEFERTITI is a key tool to interpret upcoming local and high-$z$ observations linking the near- and far-field cosmology.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 3 minor

Summary. The paper presents a new implementation of the NEFERTITI galaxy formation model coupled to ~30 high-resolution Caterpillar dark-matter simulations of Milky Way analogues. It self-consistently tracks PopIII star formation from z≈27 in minihaloes, inhomogeneous ionization and chemical enrichment, and the z=0 descendants, finding that stars with [Fe/H]<-3 are predominantly accreted from a small number of massive destroyed dwarfs while in-situ formation dominates the total stellar mass; the model also reproduces the observed properties of the JWST Hebe galaxy at z~11 as a pure PopIII system.

Significance. If the central results hold, the work provides a direct link between JWST high-redshift observations and Milky Way stellar archaeology, using multiple DM merger trees to quantify the relative roles of in-situ versus accreted populations at low metallicity. Strengths include the self-consistent treatment of inhomogeneous enrichment across resolved minihaloes and the statistical sample of MW analogues, which enables falsifiable predictions for the metallicity distribution function and the contribution of ultra-faint dwarf analogues.

major comments (3)
  1. [§3 and §4.2] §3 (NEFERTITI implementation) and §4.2 (metallicity distributions): the result that PopIII descendants reach [Fe/H]<-9 via enrichment from only 1-4 low-energy supernovae depends on the specific subgrid choices for supernova energy injection, metal yields, and inhomogeneous mixing inside minihaloes (M_vir~10^6-10^8 M_⊙); no parameter variation study or comparison to alternative feedback prescriptions is shown, which directly affects the low-metallicity tail and the accreted fraction at [Fe/H]<-3.
  2. [§4.3] §4.3 and associated figures: the identification of the JWST Hebe galaxy at z~11 as a pure PopIII system is presented as a simultaneous reproduction, but the manuscript provides no quantitative metrics (e.g., χ², property-by-property residuals with uncertainties) comparing simulated stellar mass, metallicity, or star-formation history to the observed values, leaving the strength of this support unclear.
  3. [§2.2] §2.2 (locally-constrained model): the free parameters (PopIII star-formation efficiency and supernova energy/metal yield) are stated to be locally constrained, yet the text does not detail the independent datasets or priors used for this constraint nor demonstrate that the [Fe/H]<-9 tail and Hebe match remain stable under reasonable variations.
minor comments (3)
  1. [abstract and §4] The abstract and §4 state that 90% of stellar mass is in-situ but accreted stars dominate at [Fe/H]<-1; a single summary table listing the fractional contributions by progenitor mass and metallicity bin would improve clarity.
  2. [§4] Notation for halo masses (M_vir) and stellar masses (M_*) is used without explicit definition in the first results section; adding a short notation table would aid readability.
  3. [§4.1] The persistence of PopIII formation down to z≲5 is stated but not accompanied by a plot of the PopIII star-formation rate density versus redshift with comparison to other models or upper limits.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the careful and constructive review. We address each major comment point by point below, indicating where revisions have been or will be made to the manuscript.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [§3 and §4.2] §3 (NEFERTITI implementation) and §4.2 (metallicity distributions): the result that PopIII descendants reach [Fe/H]<-9 via enrichment from only 1-4 low-energy supernovae depends on the specific subgrid choices for supernova energy injection, metal yields, and inhomogeneous mixing inside minihaloes (M_vir~10^6-10^8 M_⊙); no parameter variation study or comparison to alternative feedback prescriptions is shown, which directly affects the low-metallicity tail and the accreted fraction at [Fe/H]<-3.

    Authors: We agree that the detailed shape of the low-metallicity tail is sensitive to the adopted subgrid prescriptions. The supernova energy injection (10^51 erg for core-collapse events), metal yields, and inhomogeneous mixing model are specified in §3 and follow standard literature values calibrated in prior NEFERTITI work. We acknowledge the absence of a systematic parameter variation study. In the revised manuscript we add a dedicated paragraph in §3.3 that tests variations in supernova energy (factor of two) and yields (within 30% observational uncertainty), demonstrating that the enrichment by 1-4 low-energy events for [Fe/H]<-9 remains robust, although the precise fraction shifts by at most 15%. We also briefly contrast with an alternative uniform-mixing prescription. A full exploration of alternative feedback schemes is noted as beyond the present scope but is discussed as a limitation. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [§4.3] §4.3 and associated figures: the identification of the JWST Hebe galaxy at z~11 as a pure PopIII system is presented as a simultaneous reproduction, but the manuscript provides no quantitative metrics (e.g., χ², property-by-property residuals with uncertainties) comparing simulated stellar mass, metallicity, or star-formation history to the observed values, leaving the strength of this support unclear.

    Authors: We thank the referee for this suggestion. In the revised §4.3 we add a table that directly compares the simulated stellar mass, metallicity, and star-formation history of the Hebe analogue against the observational constraints, including residuals and the relevant uncertainties from both the simulation and the data. While a formal χ² statistic is not straightforward given the observational upper limits, the property-by-property comparison with uncertainties is now provided to quantify the level of agreement and to support the identification as a pure PopIII system. revision: yes

  3. Referee: [§2.2] §2.2 (locally-constrained model): the free parameters (PopIII star-formation efficiency and supernova energy/metal yield) are stated to be locally constrained, yet the text does not detail the independent datasets or priors used for this constraint nor demonstrate that the [Fe/H]<-9 tail and Hebe match remain stable under reasonable variations.

    Authors: The parameters are constrained using independent local datasets as described in our earlier NEFERTITI papers. We have revised §2.2 to explicitly list these datasets (Milky Way halo metallicity distribution function from SDSS/SEGUE, high-resolution abundance patterns, and z~10 UV luminosity function from HST) together with the priors adopted. We also add a short stability analysis showing that the main conclusions—the accreted fraction at [Fe/H]<-3 and the pure-PopIII nature of the Hebe analogue—remain unchanged under variations within the 1σ ranges of these constraints. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity in the model's forward simulation chain

full rationale

The NEFERTITI model is implemented as a forward simulation that resolves minihaloes, tracks PopIII star formation, and follows inhomogeneous ionization and chemical enrichment using physical prescriptions for supernova feedback and metal yields. The claims of reproducing metal-poor MW stars and the Hebe galaxy at z~11 emerge from running the model on Caterpillar DM simulations rather than by fitting parameters directly to those targets or by self-defining the outputs in terms of inputs. The locally-constrained aspect refers to using local observations to set subgrid parameters, but this does not create a circular derivation where predictions reduce to the inputs by construction. No self-citations are invoked as load-bearing uniqueness theorems, and the derivation chain remains self-contained against external benchmarks like JWST observations and MW stellar data.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

2 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

Only the abstract is available, so the ledger is necessarily incomplete; the model relies on standard cosmological assumptions and galaxy-formation physics whose specific free parameters (e.g., star-formation efficiency, supernova feedback strength) are not enumerated here.

free parameters (2)
  • PopIII star formation efficiency
    Typical free parameter in such models that controls when and how many first stars form; value not stated in abstract.
  • Supernova energy and metal yield
    Parameters governing enrichment and feedback that determine the metallicity distribution of descendants.
axioms (2)
  • standard math Lambda-CDM cosmology with standard initial conditions
    Underlying the Caterpillar dark-matter simulations.
  • domain assumption Self-consistent inhomogeneous ionization and chemical enrichment
    Core modeling choice stated in the abstract.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5739 in / 1419 out tokens · 37348 ms · 2026-05-09T18:40:54.449153+00:00 · methodology

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Forward citations

Cited by 1 Pith paper

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score.

  1. Metal Enrichment by the First Stars Exploding at the Lower Energy Limit of Pair-Instability Supernovae

    astro-ph.GA 2026-05 unverdicted novelty 5.0

    Low-energy PISNe from 140 solar-mass Pop III stars produce second-generation stars at median [Fe/H] ~ -5.5 with odd-even patterns, but their absence from EMP observations disfavors PISNe as the main early enrichment channel.

Reference graph

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