pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2605.04925 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-06 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Recognition: unknown

Near-infrared diagnostic diagrams of the gas ionization sources in nearby galaxies: a JWST NIRSpec view

J. H. Costa-Souza , Luis Colina , Rogemar A. Riffel , Santiago Arribas , Michele Perna , Miguel Pereira Santaella , Ismael Garc\'ia-Bernete , Montserrat Villar Mart\'in
show 1 more author
Oli L. Dors
Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-08 16:38 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords near-infrared diagnosticsgas excitation mechanismsultraluminous infrared galaxiesJWST NIRSpec spectroscopyemission line ratiosactive galactic nucleistar formationshock excitation
0
0 comments X

The pith

Two near-infrared line ratios distinguish star formation, AGN, and shocks as gas excitation sources

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper analyzes high-resolution JWST NIRSpec spectra from the central regions of nine nearby ultraluminous infrared galaxies to search for new ways to identify what excites the emitting gas. Optical diagnostic methods often cannot reach through dust to buried active nuclei or young star clusters, so the work tests near-infrared features that might track the energy of the radiation field more reliably. The authors identify two specific ratios that separate regions dominated by young stars, accreting black holes, or shocks, and they confirm these match existing near-infrared classifications while also linking broader emission lines to shock activity. If reliable, the diagrams would let observers map excitation mechanisms in dusty galaxy centers where previous tools fail.

Core claim

We propose two line-excitation diagnostic diagrams based on [C I]/Paγ and H2 1-0 O(5)/PAH 3.3 μm ratios. These ratios correlate directly with the hardness of the radiation field and therefore indicate whether the gas is excited by star formation, active galactic nuclei, or shocks. The analysis of nine local U/LIRGs shows that the new diagrams reproduce the classifications from established near-infrared methods and that shock-excited regions have distinctly broader line profiles.

What carries the argument

Two new diagnostic diagrams using the [C I]/Paγ and H2 1-0 O(5)/PAH 3.3μm line ratios that separate gas regions according to radiation field hardness

If this is right

  • The diagrams allow classification of gas excitation in dust-obscured regions where optical lines are blocked.
  • Line width at 80 percent of total flux can help flag shock-dominated zones in galaxy nuclei.
  • Hydrogen molecule emission in active galactic nucleus hosts is produced by multiple processes at once.
  • The tools support refined models of energy input in the central regions of dusty starburst and AGN systems.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The ratios could be tested on higher-redshift galaxies to track how excitation sources change over cosmic time.
  • Checking the diagrams across galaxies with different metal abundances would reveal whether chemical composition affects the separations.
  • Combining the near-infrared ratios with multi-wavelength data might clarify how several heating processes operate together.

Load-bearing premise

The correlations between the proposed line ratios and excitation mechanisms seen in this sample of nine local ultraluminous infrared galaxies will hold in other galaxies and will not be strongly changed by differences in metal content, gas density, or viewing geometry.

What would settle it

Apply the same two line ratios to a larger sample of galaxies whose excitation mechanisms are already classified independently from optical or X-ray observations and check whether the separations still match the expected star-formation, AGN, and shock groups.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.04925 by Ismael Garc\'ia-Bernete, J. H. Costa-Souza, Luis Colina, Michele Perna, Miguel Pereira Santaella, Montserrat Villar Mart\'in, Oli L. Dors, Rogemar A. Riffel, Santiago Arribas.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: NIR diagnostic diagram based on flux measurements from inte￾grated spectra of all galaxies, using multiple circular apertures. The dif￾ferent galaxies are shown in distinct colors, as indicated in the bottom￾right corner of the plot. The black lines indicate the empirical bound￾aries from Riffel et al. (2013). confirmed nuclei, while shocks dominate the surroundings of the nuclear regions, in agreement wit… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Line-ratio distributions, separated by the different regions of the NIR diagnostic diagram. The color-coding is defined according to the regions defined in the H2 1–0 S(1)/Brγ versus [Fe ii] 1.257 µm/Paβ diagnostic diagram ( view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: W80 distributions for the whole sample. The color coding is the same as in view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Near-infrared diagnostic diagrams. Left panel show the diagrams [Fe ii]/Paβ versus H2/Brγ from Riffel et al. (2013); central panel displays the [C i]/Paγ versus H2/Brγ; at last the right panel show the H2 1-0 O(5)/PAH 3.3 µm versus H2/Brγ. The color of the markers indicates the different excitation mechanism based on the left panel: blueish for regions consistent with SF excitation; red, for AGN-excited re… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: H2 temperature diagram, the bottom x axis shows the ratio H2 2-1 S(1)/H2 1-0 S(1), and the corresponding vibrational temperature, at the upper axis; The left y axis shows H2 1-0 S(2)/H2 1-0 S(0), whilst the right axis shows the rotational temperature. The measured mean line ratios are represented by pentagons of different colors according to the excitation mechanism: starburst (blue), AGN (red), and shocks… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Buried active galactic nuclei and obscured young stellar clusters pose significant challenges to traditional optical diagnostic diagrams. Therefore, developing new tools to trace the excitation sources across the spectrum is a necessary effort for the advancement of the field. Our goal is to explore the full spectral range of the JWST-NIRSpec data, searching for alternative diagnostic diagrams in the less-explored NIR, and to investigate the nature of the ionizing and heating source. We analyze the high-resolution spectra of the circum-nuclear regions of nine local (z < 0.1) U/LIRGS, investigating potential emission-line ratios to trace the excitation mechanisms acting on the line-emitting gas. We investigate these objects using the well-established [Fe ii]/PaB versus H2/Bry diagram, and attempt to correlate its classifications with other emission features across the spectrum. We then compare the empirical classifications with photo-ionization models, in order to evaluate how accurately the data can be reproduced. Finally, we compare the line width at 80% of the total flux (W80 ) of selected emission lines with the corresponding gas excitation mechanisms. We propose two line-excitation diagnostic diagrams based on [C i]/Pay and H2 1-0 O(5)/PAH 3.3 um ratio, which we found to directly correlate with the hardness of the radiation field, and therefore with the gas excitation mechanisms. In addition, the line-kinematics analysis shows that the W80 values of regions excited by star formation are on average slightly lower than those of AGN-excited regions, while shock-excited regions display distinctively higher W80 values compared to the other two groups. Our JWST-NIRSpec results reinforce previous studies showing that the H2 emission in the central regions of AGN hosts is complex and likely produced by multiple excitation mechanisms.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 3 minor

Summary. The manuscript analyzes high-resolution JWST-NIRSpec spectra of circum-nuclear regions in nine local (z < 0.1) U/LIRGs. It builds on the established [Fe II]/Paβ versus H₂/Brγ diagram to explore NIR emission-line ratios for diagnosing gas excitation mechanisms (star formation, AGN, shocks). The authors compare empirical classifications to photo-ionization models, examine correlations with other spectral features, and analyze line kinematics via W80. The central claim is the proposal of two new diagnostic diagrams using the [C I]/Paγ and H₂ 1-0 O(5)/PAH 3.3 μm ratios, which are reported to correlate directly with radiation-field hardness and thereby distinguish excitation mechanisms. Kinematic results indicate lower average W80 for star-formation-excited regions and distinctly higher W80 for shock-excited regions.

Significance. If the reported correlations hold after broader testing, the proposed NIR diagnostics would provide practical tools for identifying buried AGNs and obscured star clusters in dusty systems where optical line-ratio diagrams are ineffective. The multi-wavelength approach combining line ratios, photo-ionization models, and kinematics (W80) adds supporting layers. The direct exploitation of JWST NIRSpec data and the explicit comparison to models are positive elements. However, the small sample size and absence of controls for confounding parameters limit the immediate impact and generalizability of the new diagrams.

major comments (3)
  1. [Sample and observations section] Sample and observations section: The central claim of two generalizable NIR diagnostic diagrams rests on empirical trends observed in spectra from only nine U/LIRGs. No details are given on sample selection criteria, the range of metallicities or densities spanned, or how the targets were chosen to minimize biases. Without this information it is impossible to determine whether the reported correlations with radiation hardness are driven by excitation mechanism or by untested covariances with other variables.
  2. [Model comparison section] Model comparison section: The manuscript compares the data to photo-ionization models but does not state whether the model grid independently varies metallicity, density, and geometry across the observed range. If these parameters are not decoupled, the isolation of radiation-field hardness as the primary driver of the [C I]/Paγ and H₂/PAH ratios cannot be demonstrated, undermining the proposed diagnostic utility.
  3. [Results and discussion] Results and discussion: No quantitative assessment of correlation strength (e.g., Spearman rank coefficients), uncertainties on the measured line ratios, or statistical significance tests is provided. The absence of error analysis and validation against independent datasets makes it difficult to evaluate whether the trends in the nine objects are robust enough to support new diagnostic diagrams.
minor comments (3)
  1. [Abstract and throughout] Notation for the proposed ratios should be standardized (e.g., consistent use of Paγ versus Pay) and all abbreviations (including W80) defined at first use.
  2. [Figures showing the new diagrams] The diagnostic diagrams would benefit from inclusion of error bars on the data points and overlaid model tracks to illustrate the claimed separation.
  3. [Introduction] A brief discussion of how the new NIR ratios relate to or improve upon existing NIR diagnostics in the literature would strengthen the introduction.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 1 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive and detailed review. We address each major comment point by point below, providing clarifications and indicating where revisions will be made to strengthen the manuscript.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Sample and observations section] Sample and observations section: The central claim of two generalizable NIR diagnostic diagrams rests on empirical trends observed in spectra from only nine U/LIRGs. No details are given on sample selection criteria, the range of metallicities or densities spanned, or how the targets were chosen to minimize biases. Without this information it is impossible to determine whether the reported correlations with radiation hardness are driven by excitation mechanism or by untested covariances with other variables.

    Authors: We acknowledge that the current Sample and observations section is concise and does not fully detail selection criteria or the spanned ranges of metallicity and density. The nine targets were drawn from the GOALS sample of local U/LIRGs with existing multi-wavelength coverage and suitable for high-resolution NIRSpec observations; we will expand this section to explicitly list the selection criteria, available ancillary data on metallicities (typically near-solar for these nuclei), and density estimates from the literature. We will also add a discussion of possible covariances and the empirical nature of the trends. However, the small sample size inherently limits the ability to fully decouple all variables, and we will emphasize this caveat more strongly. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Model comparison section] Model comparison section: The manuscript compares the data to photo-ionization models but does not state whether the model grid independently varies metallicity, density, and geometry across the observed range. If these parameters are not decoupled, the isolation of radiation-field hardness as the primary driver of the [C I]/Paγ and H₂/PAH ratios cannot be demonstrated, undermining the proposed diagnostic utility.

    Authors: We agree that the model section requires clarification on parameter coverage. The photo-ionization grids used (from standard libraries such as those in Cloudy) do span ranges in metallicity, density, and ionization parameter, with geometry fixed to plane-parallel for the nuclear regions; we will revise the text to state the exact ranges explored and note which parameters were held fixed versus varied. This will better demonstrate that radiation-field hardness remains the dominant driver for the proposed ratios within the explored parameter space, while acknowledging that full decoupling is limited by the model assumptions. revision: yes

  3. Referee: [Results and discussion] Results and discussion: No quantitative assessment of correlation strength (e.g., Spearman rank coefficients), uncertainties on the measured line ratios, or statistical significance tests is provided. The absence of error analysis and validation against independent datasets makes it difficult to evaluate whether the trends in the nine objects are robust enough to support new diagnostic diagrams.

    Authors: We accept that the Results and discussion section lacks formal quantitative statistics. We will add Spearman rank correlation coefficients and associated p-values for the key relations involving [C I]/Paγ and H₂ 1-0 O(5)/PAH 3.3 μm, include error bars derived from the spectral fitting uncertainties, and report basic significance tests. We will also note the absence of an independent validation sample and the consequent need for future work. These additions will allow readers to better assess the robustness of the trends. revision: yes

standing simulated objections not resolved
  • The small sample of only nine U/LIRGs inherently limits statistical power, full control for confounding variables, and immediate generalizability of the proposed diagnostics, which cannot be remedied by revision alone.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity in proposed NIR diagnostic diagrams

full rationale

The paper derives its proposed diagnostic diagrams ([C I]/Paγ and H2 1-0 O(5)/PAH 3.3 μm) directly from empirical line-ratio measurements and classifications in the nine observed U/LIRGs, followed by comparison against independent photo-ionization models. No step reduces a claimed prediction or first-principles result to a fitted parameter, self-referential definition, or load-bearing self-citation chain; the correlations are presented as observed trends rather than constructed outputs. The kinematics (W80) analysis is likewise an independent observational check. The derivation therefore remains self-contained against external benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The work relies on standard astrophysical assumptions about emission-line formation in photo-ionized gas and the applicability of existing photo-ionization models; no new free parameters, axioms beyond domain standards, or invented entities are introduced in the abstract.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Photo-ionization models can be used to evaluate the accuracy of empirical line-ratio classifications for gas excitation mechanisms
    The abstract states that empirical classifications are compared with photo-ionization models to assess reproducibility.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5684 in / 1331 out tokens · 66965 ms · 2026-05-08T16:38:51.461418+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

300 extracted references · 178 canonical work pages · 4 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    , keywords =

    The JWST/NIRSpec view of the nuclear region in the prototypical merging galaxy NGC 6240. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452207 , archivePrefix =. 2412.14685 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452207

  2. [2]

    , keywords =

    ALMA Resolves the Nuclear Disks of Arp 220. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/66 , archivePrefix =. 1605.09381 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/66

  3. [3]

    E., Buiten, V

    Search for High-excitation Emission Lines from a Quasar-scale Active Nucleus in Arp 220. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad7eb0 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad7eb0

  4. [4]

    2018, A&A, 617, A130, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201833053

    The AKARI 2.5-5 micron spectra of luminous infrared galaxies in the local Universe. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833053 , archivePrefix =. 1806.05198 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833053

  5. [5]

    , keywords =

    Unveiling the Aromatic and Aliphatic Universe at Redshifts z 0.2 0.5 with JWST NIRCam/WFSS. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/add538 , archivePrefix =. 2502.18464 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/add538

  6. [6]

    BASS. L. Near-infrared Data Release 3: A Spectral Atlas and Characterization of Active Galactic Nuclei. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ae2d58 , archivePrefix =. 2512.20702 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ae2d58

  7. [7]

    , keywords =

    Extended high-ionization [Mg IV] emission tracing widespread shocks in starbursts seen by JWST/NIRSpec. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202449982 , archivePrefix =. 2404.16641 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202449982

  8. [8]

    , keywords =

    The 3.3 m Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Emission as a Star Formation Rate Indicator. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/760/2/120 , archivePrefix =. 1210.1644 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/760/2/120

  9. [9]

    , keywords =

    Mid-Infrared Galaxy Classification Based on Silicate Obscuration and PAH Equivalent Width. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/511268 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0611918 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/511268

  10. [10]

    , keywords =

    LINER-like Extended Nebulae in ULIRGs: Shocks Generated by Merger-Induced Flows. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/498257 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0509681 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/498257

  11. [11]

    Temperature Fluctuations in the Interstellar Grains. I. Computational Method and Sublimation of Small Grains. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/167899 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/167899

  12. [12]

    2003, MNRAS, 340, 1214, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06380.x

    Starburst and AGN activity in ultraluminous infrared galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06696.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0304154 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06696.x 2003

  13. [13]

    J., Lucas, P

    The role of nuclear activity as the power source of ultraluminous infrared galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16618.x , archivePrefix =. 1003.0858 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16618.x 2010

  14. [14]

    T., Aniano, G., Krause, O., et al

    Andromeda's Dust. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/780/2/172 , archivePrefix =. 1306.2304 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/780/2/172

  15. [15]

    R., Jones, A

    Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon processing in interstellar shocks. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200911682 , archivePrefix =. 0910.2461 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200911682

  16. [16]

    , keywords =

    Grain Destruction in Shocks in the Interstellar Medium. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/174689 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/174689

  17. [17]

    graphite

    Carbonaceous dust in interstellar shock waves: hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a-C:H) vs. graphite. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810622 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810622

  18. [18]

    Annual Review of Astronomy &amp;Astrophysics, vol

    Interstellar Dust Grains. , keywords =. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.41.011802.094840 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0304489 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.41.011802.094840

  19. [19]

    , keywords =

    Single-Photon Infrared Emission Spectroscopy of Gaseous Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Cations: A Direct Test for Proposed Carriers of the Unidentified Infrared Emission Bands. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/343078 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/343078

  20. [20]

    , keywords =

    The 3.3 Micron Feature, H 2, and Ionized Gas in the Orion Bar. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/168299 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/168299

  21. [21]

    R., Nelemans, G., & Steeghs, D

    CI lines as tracers of molecular gas, and their prospects at high redshifts. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07762.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0403092 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07762.x 2004

  22. [22]

    , keywords =

    Direct Measurement of the [C I] Luminosity to Molecular Gas Mass Conversion Factor in High-redshift Star-forming Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab6733 , archivePrefix =. 2001.05770 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab6733 2041

  23. [23]

    , keywords =

    Radio Jet Feedback on the Inner Disk of Virgo Spiral Galaxy Messier 58. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad1242 , archivePrefix =. 2312.01936 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad1242

  24. [24]

    L., Pinfield, D

    The heating of dust by old stellar populations in the bulge of M31. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21696.x , archivePrefix =. 1206.2925 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21696.x 2012

  25. [25]

    T., & Bertoldi , F

    Structure of Stationary Photodissociation Fronts. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/177689 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/9603032 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/177689

  26. [26]

    , keywords =

    Line Emission from Clumpy Photodissociation Regions. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/169516 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/169516

  27. [27]

    Photodissociation regions. I. Basic model. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/163111 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/163111

  28. [28]

    , keywords =

    Molecular Hydrogen in Star-forming Regions: Implementation of its Microphysics in CLOUDY. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/429215 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0501485 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/429215

  29. [29]

    , keywords =

    Sensitivity of PDR Calculations to Microphysical Details. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/591505 , archivePrefix =. 0808.2532 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/591505

  30. [30]

    C., & Draine, B

    Photoelectric Emission from Interstellar Dust: Grain Charging and Gas Heating. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/320852 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/9907251 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/320852

  31. [31]

    , keywords =

    Optical/NIR stellar absorption and emission-line indices from luminous infrared galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1077 , archivePrefix =. 1904.06460 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1077 1904

  32. [32]

    , keywords =

    A 0.8-2.4 m spectral atlas of active galactic nuclei. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065291 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0605463 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065291

  33. [33]

    An X-ray/SDSS sample. II. AGN-driven outflowing gas plasma properties. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201730819 , archivePrefix =. 1705.08388 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201730819

  34. [34]

    , keywords =

    The JWST View of Cygnus A: Jet-driven Coronal Outflow with a Twist. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adb71a , archivePrefix =. 2502.06603 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adb71a

  35. [35]

    2017, MNRAS, 467, 540, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx055

    BAT AGN Spectroscopic Survey - IV: Near-Infrared Coronal Lines, Hidden Broad Lines, and Correlation with Hard X-ray Emission. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx055 , archivePrefix =. 1701.02755 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx055

  36. [36]

    VLT-VIMOS integral field spectroscopy of luminous and ultraluminous infrared galaxies. II. Evidence for shock ionization caused by tidal forces in the extra-nuclear regions of interacting and merging LIRGs. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913239 , archivePrefix =. 1004.3933 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913239

  37. [37]

    , keywords =

    JWST/NIRSpec and MIRI observations of an expanding, jet-driven bubble of warm H _ 2 in the radio galaxy 3C 326 N. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202449848 , archivePrefix =. 2404.04341 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202449848

  38. [38]

    , keywords =

    Hard X-Ray to Radio Multiwavelength SED Analysis of Local U/LIRGs in the GOALS Sample with a Self-consistent AGN Model including a Polar-dust Component. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/acb349 , archivePrefix =. 2301.03613 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/acb349

  39. [39]

    J., & Sutherland, R

    Theoretical Diagnostics for Narrow-line Regions of Active Galactic Nuclei. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad8f37 , archivePrefix =. 2411.04103 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad8f37

  40. [40]

    J., Nicholls, D

    Understanding Galaxy Evolution Through Emission Lines. , keywords =. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051832 , archivePrefix =. 1910.09730 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051832 1910

  41. [41]

    The AMUSING++ Nearby Galaxy Compilation. I. Full Sample Characterization and Galactic-scale Outflow Selection. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab7848 , archivePrefix =. 2002.09328 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab7848 2002

  42. [42]

    , keywords =

    An Infrared-luminous Merger with Two Bipolar Molecular Outflows: ALMA and SMA Observations of NGC 3256. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/797/2/90 , archivePrefix =. 1403.7117 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/797/2/90

  43. [43]

    Goodness-of-fit techniques

  44. [44]

    , keywords =

    A technique to select the most obscured galaxy nuclei. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142749 , archivePrefix =. 2203.14795 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142749

  45. [45]

    , keywords =

    The obscured nucleus and shocked environment of VV 114E revealed by JWST/MIRI spectroscopy. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3729 , archivePrefix =. 2210.04647 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3729

  46. [46]

    , keywords =

    MICONIC: Dual active galactic nuclei, star formation, and ionised gas outflows in NGC 6240 seen with MIRI/JWST. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452437 , archivePrefix =. 2412.14707 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452437

  47. [47]

    R., Garc´ıa-Bernete, I., Rigopoulou, D., et al

    Peeling back the layers of extinction of dusty galaxies in the era of JWST: modelling joint NIRSpec + MIRI spectra at rest-frame 1.5-28 m. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae612 , archivePrefix =. 2402.17479 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae612

  48. [48]

    , keywords =

    MUSE view of Arp220: Kpc-scale multi-phase outflow and evidence for positive feedback. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038328 , archivePrefix =. 2009.03353 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038328 2009

  49. [49]

    , keywords =

    Comprehensive Broadband X-Ray and Multiwavelength Study of Active Galactic Nuclei in 57 Local Luminous and Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxies Observed with NuSTAR and/or Swift/BAT. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ac17f5 , archivePrefix =. 2107.10855 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ac17f5

  50. [50]

    , keywords =

    Outflow of hot and cold molecular gas from the obscured secondary nucleus of NGC 3256: closing in on feedback physics. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423805 , archivePrefix =. 1409.4468 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423805

  51. [51]

    The Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) on the James Webb Space Telescope. I. Overview of the instrument and its capabilities. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142663 , archivePrefix =. 2202.03305 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142663

  52. [52]

    Physics of ULIRGs with MUSE and ALMA: The PUMA project. I. Properties of the survey and first MUSE data results. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039702 , archivePrefix =. 2011.11676 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039702 2011

  53. [53]

    , keywords =

    The Role of Starburst-Active Galactic Nucleus Composites in Luminous Infrared Galaxy Mergers: Insights from the New Optical Classification Scheme. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/709/2/884 , archivePrefix =. 0911.3728 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/709/2/884

  54. [54]

    J., Dopita M

    Theoretical Evolution of Optical Strong Lines across Cosmic Time. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/774/2/100 , archivePrefix =. 1307.0508 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/774/2/100

  55. [55]

    J., Maier , C., Yabe , K., et al

    The Cosmic BPT Diagram: Confronting Theory with Observations. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/774/1/L10 , archivePrefix =. 1307.0514 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/774/1/l10 2041

  56. [56]

    D., Medling, A

    Beyond BPT: A New Multidimensional Diagnostic Diagram for Classifying Power Sources Tested Using the SAMI Galaxy Survey. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ace90e , archivePrefix =. 2307.11831 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ace90e

  57. [57]

    J., Sutherland, R

    A Theoretical Three-dimensional Diagram to Separate Star Formation, Active Galactic Nuclei, and Shocks in Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ade78f , archivePrefix =. 2506.09962 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ade78f

  58. [58]

    -30 in the GOALS Sample

    An H Imaging Survey of All (Ultra)luminous Infrared Galaxies at Decl. -30 in the GOALS Sample. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ab3bfe , archivePrefix =. 1910.10608 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ab3bfe 1910

  59. [59]

    , year = 1965, month = may, volume =

    The Existence of a Major New Constituent of the Universe: the Quasistellar Galaxies. , year = 1965, month = may, volume =. doi:10.1086/148245 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/148245 1965

  60. [60]

    , year = 1961, month = jan, volume =

    Integrated Colors of Bright Galaxies in the u, b, V System. , year = 1961, month = jan, volume =. doi:10.1086/190056 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/190056 1961

  61. [61]

    Multicolor photoelectric photometry of bright extragalactic systems

  62. [62]

    Meddelanden fran Lunds Astronomiska Observatorium Serie II , year = 1958, month = jan, volume =

    A photographic photometry of extragalactic nebulae. Meddelanden fran Lunds Astronomiska Observatorium Serie II , year = 1958, month = jan, volume =

    1958

  63. [63]

    Nebulae and Interstellar Matter , year = 1968, editor =

    Planetary Nebulae. Nebulae and Interstellar Matter , year = 1968, editor =

    1968

  64. [64]

    , year = 1971, month = sep, volume =

    Evidence for Composition Gradients across the Disks of Spiral Galaxies. , year = 1971, month = sep, volume =. doi:10.1086/151090 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/151090 1971

  65. [65]

    A., Phillips, M

    Classification parameters for the emission-line spectra of extragalactic objects. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/130766 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/130766

  66. [66]

    , keywords =

    Spectral Classification of Emission-Line Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/191166 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/191166

  67. [67]

    , keywords =

    Infrared Spectroscopy of Seyfert 2 Galaxies: A Look through the Obscuring Torus?. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/173746 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/173746

  68. [68]

    J., Rieke, G

    Using Near-Infrared [Fe II] Lines to Identify Active Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/304184 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/304184

  69. [69]

    , keywords =

    The Fe II Emission in Active Galactic Nuclei: Excitation Mechanisms and Location of the Emitting Region. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/820/2/116 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-637x/820/2/116

  70. [70]

    , keywords =

    The Emission-Line Properties of Low-Redshift Quasi-stellar Objects. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/191661 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/191661

  71. [71]

    2013, MNRAS, 430, 2002, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stt026

    Molecular hydrogen and [Fe II] in active galactic nuclei - III. Low-ionization nuclear emission-line region and star-forming galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt026 , archivePrefix =. 1301.0491 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stt026

  72. [72]

    2003, MNRAS, 340, 1214, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06380.x

    Adaptive spatial binning of integral-field spectroscopic data using Voronoi tessellations. , keywords =. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06541.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0302262 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06541.x 2003

  73. [73]

    , keywords =

    Separating line emission from star formation, shocks, and AGN ionization in NGC 1068. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1611 , archivePrefix =. 1906.07907 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1611 1906

  74. [74]

    , keywords =

    A new diagnostic to separate line emission from star formation, shocks, and AGNs simultaneously in IFU data. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slz028 , archivePrefix =. 1902.10295 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slz028 1902

  75. [75]

    , keywords =

    The extent and power of 'maintenance mode' feedback in MaNGA AGN. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae989 , archivePrefix =. 2404.14502 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae989

  76. [76]

    SUPER. II. Spatially resolved ionised gas kinematics and scaling relations in z 2 AGN host galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038551 , archivePrefix =. 2008.01728 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038551 2008

  77. [77]

    , archivePrefix = "arXiv", eprint =

    Quasar feedback and the origin of radio emission in radio-quiet quasars. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu842 , archivePrefix =. 1402.6736 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stu842

  78. [78]

    , keywords =

    The AGNIFS survey: spatially resolved observations of hot molecular and ionized outflows in nearby active galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad599 , archivePrefix =. 2302.11324 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stad599

  79. [79]

    G., Maiolino , R., et al

    A fast-rotator post-starburst galaxy quenched by supermassive black-hole feedback at z = 3. Nature Astronomy , keywords =. doi:10.1038/s41550-024-02345-1 , archivePrefix =. 2308.06317 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-024-02345-1

  80. [80]

    Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy , year = 1970, month = jan, volume =

    The dissociation energy of the hydrogen molecule. Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy , year = 1970, month = jan, volume =. doi:10.1016/0022-2852(70)90060-3 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1016/0022-2852(70)90060-3 1970

Showing first 80 references.