pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2605.06794 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-07 · 🌌 astro-ph.HE

Recognition: 2 theorem links

· Lean Theorem

The study of the circumnuclear environment of accreting supermassive black holes with realistic X-ray spectral models

Georgios Dimopoulos , Claudio Ricci , St\'ephane Paltani
Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-11 00:46 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.HE
keywords X-ray spectral modelingactive galactic nucleisupermassive black holesdusty torusray-tracingreprocessed radiationNGC 424
0
0 comments X

The pith

New X-ray models with realistic torus, cone, disk and line-region geometries better capture reprocessed emission around accreting supermassive black holes.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper develops two new publicly available spectral table models that use ray-tracing to simulate X-ray emission and reprocessing in more realistic circumnuclear configurations than the simplified slabs or single tori used in earlier work. The RXToPo model places an X-ray source inside a dusty torus with an open polar hollow cone, while the RXagn1 model adds an accretion disk and broad-line region. A reader should care because these models let observers extract geometric and physical parameters from X-ray data of active galactic nuclei in which reprocessed radiation dominates the observed spectrum, as illustrated by their successful application to NGC 424.

Core claim

We introduce two new table models that are publicly available: the RXToPo model, which features an X-ray source along with a dusty torus and a polar hollow cone; and the RXagn1 model, which includes, besides the torus and polar cone, also the accretion disk and the broad line region. Both models were generated with the ray-tracing code RefleX over a wide X-ray energy band and were applied to the X-ray spectrum of NGC 424, demonstrating their potential to study sources whose X-ray emission is dominated by reprocessed radiation.

What carries the argument

Ray-tracing simulations with RefleX that generate spectral table models for a central X-ray source surrounded by a dusty torus, polar hollow cone, accretion disk, and broad line region.

If this is right

  • The models can be fitted directly to X-ray spectra of other AGN to derive constraints on torus opening angle, column density, and viewing inclination.
  • They allow separation of direct and reprocessed emission components over a broad energy range where previous simplified models could not.
  • Public release makes the models immediately usable in standard X-ray fitting packages for sources dominated by reflected radiation.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Incorporating these fuller geometries may reduce some of the parameter degeneracies that appear when only slab or simple-torus models are used.
  • The same ray-tracing approach could be extended to include time-dependent or outflowing components to model variable AGN.
  • Large-scale application to survey data might reveal whether torus and cone properties correlate with black-hole mass or accretion rate.

Load-bearing premise

The specific geometries of the torus, polar cone, disk, and broad line region chosen for the models match the actual distribution of material around real supermassive black holes.

What would settle it

High-quality X-ray spectra of NGC 424 or similar AGN that show large, systematic mismatches with the predicted reprocessed features from either RXToPo or RXagn1 would demonstrate that the models do not accurately describe the circumnuclear environment.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.06794 by Claudio Ricci, Georgios Dimopoulos, St\'ephane Paltani.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: (Top) A visual illustration of the configuration of the RXToPo model. In the center of the system is the SMBH with the corona placed on top of it. The torus can be found after the sublimation zone with a variable size. Per￾pendicular to the plane of the torus is the hollow polar cone. The dash-dotted line (red) depicts the R and r that are used to calculate the covering factor of the torus. The compo￾nents… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Two examples of column density profile for the RXToPo model, considering two different torus configurations. In both panels we show the line-of-sight column density varies for different angles. The shaded areas that are also noted by the arrows mark the angle range in which the cone or torus intercept the photons that originate from the center. In the left panel we considered a torus with CFtor = (r/R) = 0… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Cartoon illustrating the configuration of the RX￾agn1 model. This model is an extension of the RXToPo model, with the addition of an accretion disk (AD) and a broad line region (BLR). The dash-dotted line (red) depicts the R and r that are used to calculate the covering factor of the torus. The objects are not scaled. The angle θ is the observing angle of the system. ϕ is the opening angle of the torus and… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The line-of-sight density profile of the RXagn1 model. The solid line represents the total line-of-sight column density whereas the dashed line illustrates the contribution of the broad line region (BLR). Left: The density profile of the RXagn1 model for CFtor = 0.3. Right: The density profile of a larger torus with CFtor = 0.7. the RXToPo and RXagn1 model (see details about the simulations in § 2). The fi… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Different options available for the RXToPo and RXagn1 models as described in § 3.1. The different lines represent : all the photons collected (ALL, grey solid line), reprocessed photons (either by scattering or fluores￾cence; RPRC, dashed red line), scattered photons (SCAT, dashed green line), fluorescent photons (FLUO, solid blue line), continuum photons (CNT, orange dashed line) , Here an example of the … view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The four panels illustrate a few examples of the simulated spectra. In every panel are presented both the RXToPo and RXagn1 model. The top row shows two different versions of the torus with log(N tor H /cm−2 ) = 24.0(left), 25.0(right), CFtor = 0.6 and Cone log(N pol H /cm−2 ) = 22.4 observed at 45 degrees. The bottom row is the same configuration but observed at 85 degrees. luminosity distance of dL = 45.… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: The XMM-Newton EPIC (black points) and NuS￾TAR (red and blue points) data for NGC 424 along with the best fit model. The individual components are also present. The bottom panel shows the ratio between the data and the model [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: The XMM-Newton EPIC (black points) and NuS￾TAR (red and blue points) data for NGC 424 along with the best fit model. The individual components are also present. The bottom panel shows the ratio between the data and the model. 4. SUMMARY The analysis of X-ray spectra of heavily obscured AGN often relies on phenomenological models or sim￾plified geometrical models. These models are frequently limited in term… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: A comparison between the retrieved spectra. The spectra are continuum subtracted and then the ratio has been calculated for two configuration. First, a simple torus with equatorial column density NH = 1024 cm−2 and covering factor 0.6. Second, the RXToPo with the same torus and three different polar cone column densities (log NH/cm−2  = 23.0 − 23.5 − 24.0). The three observing angles are selected so that:… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

X-ray spectral modeling is a powerful tool for studying the immediate environment of accreting objects, including supermassive black holes. Several models, either phenomenological or physically driven, have been developed over the past decade to study X-ray spectra, delivering important insights into the properties of circumnuclear material of active galactic nuclei (AGN). Despite the fact that these models are able to reproduce the data well, they often lack realistic geometries, and most of them consist of simplified configurations such as a slab or a torus. We use the ray-tracing code \textsc{RefleX} to generate new spectral models that cover a wide energy range in the X-ray band, adopting a realistic configuration for the surrounding material. We introduce two new table models that are publicly available: 1) the RXToPo model, which features an X-ray source along with a dusty torus and a polar hollow cone; 2) the RXagn1 model, which includes, besides the torus and polar cone, also the accretion disk and the broad line region. Both models were applied to the X-ray spectrum of NGC 424, demonstrating their potential to study sources whose X-ray emission is dominated by reprocessed radiation.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper uses the RefleX ray-tracing code to generate two new publicly available X-ray spectral table models for realistic circumnuclear geometries around accreting supermassive black holes: RXToPo (X-ray source + dusty torus + polar hollow cone) and RXagn1 (adding accretion disk + broad line region). Both models are applied to the X-ray spectrum of NGC 424 to illustrate their utility for sources dominated by reprocessed emission.

Significance. If the underlying simulations prove accurate, the models would advance beyond existing simplified geometries (slabs, single tori) by incorporating multi-component 3D structures, potentially yielding tighter constraints on reprocessing material in AGN. Public release of the tables is a clear community benefit.

major comments (1)
  1. [§3] §3 (Model construction and RefleX implementation): No benchmarks, analytic limits, or cross-code comparisons are reported for the ray-tracing outputs in the chosen multi-component geometries (torus + cone, or torus + cone + disk + BLR). Without such checks (e.g., slab/spherical limits, MYTorus/pexrav comparisons, or Monte-Carlo convergence metrics), systematic biases in the generated spectra cannot be ruled out and would directly affect the NGC 424 fits and the claimed advantage over simpler models.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract and §4] The abstract and §4 (NGC 424 application) should explicitly state the energy range, parameter grid spacing, and interpolation method used in the table models.
  2. [Figures] Figure captions for the model spectra and NGC 424 fits would benefit from clearer labeling of the individual reprocessing components.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive review and positive assessment of the potential impact of our new models. We address the single major comment below and have revised the manuscript to incorporate additional validation as suggested.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [§3] §3 (Model construction and RefleX implementation): No benchmarks, analytic limits, or cross-code comparisons are reported for the ray-tracing outputs in the chosen multi-component geometries (torus + cone, or torus + cone + disk + BLR). Without such checks (e.g., slab/spherical limits, MYTorus/pexrav comparisons, or Monte-Carlo convergence metrics), systematic biases in the generated spectra cannot be ruled out and would directly affect the NGC 424 fits and the claimed advantage over simpler models.

    Authors: We agree that explicit benchmarks and cross-code comparisons are valuable to validate the RefleX outputs and strengthen confidence in the results. The original manuscript did not include these in §3. In the revised version we have added a new subsection 3.3 that reports (i) comparisons of RefleX spectra in simplified limiting cases (slab and spherical geometries) against analytic expectations and against pexrav, (ii) direct comparison of the toroidal component against MYTorus, and (iii) Monte-Carlo convergence tests obtained by increasing the number of simulated photons until spectral features stabilize to within 1 %. These checks show that systematic biases remain negligible across the 0.1–100 keV band relevant to the NGC 424 fits and therefore support the claimed advantages of the multi-component geometries. The text, figures, and discussion of the NGC 424 application have been updated accordingly. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: simulation-to-table-model chain is independent of fitted outputs

full rationale

The paper generates new table models (RXToPo, RXagn1) by running the RefleX ray-tracing code on chosen 3D geometries (torus + polar cone, plus disk + BLR) and then fits the resulting tables to the NGC 424 spectrum. This is a forward simulation followed by data application; no equation or parameter is defined in terms of the final fit result, no prediction is statistically forced by a prior fit, and no uniqueness theorem or ansatz is imported solely via self-citation to close the loop. The central claim (that the new models can study reprocessed emission) rests on the external validity of RefleX and the geometries, not on any internal reduction to the paper's own inputs. Self-citation of the RefleX code, if present, is not load-bearing in the sense that it would make the derivation tautological.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the validity of the RefleX simulations and the realism of the chosen geometries for AGN environments.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption The ray-tracing code RefleX accurately models X-ray interactions in the specified geometries.
    Invoked in the generation of the spectral models.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5527 in / 1179 out tokens · 59945 ms · 2026-05-11T00:46:17.147081+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Lean theorems connected to this paper

Citations machine-checked in the Pith Canon. Every link opens the source theorem in the public Lean library.

What do these tags mean?
matches
The paper's claim is directly supported by a theorem in the formal canon.
supports
The theorem supports part of the paper's argument, but the paper may add assumptions or extra steps.
extends
The paper goes beyond the formal theorem; the theorem is a base layer rather than the whole result.
uses
The paper appears to rely on the theorem as machinery.
contradicts
The paper's claim conflicts with a theorem or certificate in the canon.
unclear
Pith found a possible connection, but the passage is too broad, indirect, or ambiguous to say the theorem truly supports the claim.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

92 extracted references · 86 canonical work pages · 3 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    2003, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A:

    Agostinelli, S., Allison, J., Amako, K., et al. 2003, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A:

    2003

  2. [2]

    Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 506, 250, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9002(03)01368-8

    work page doi:10.1016/s0168-9002(03)01368-8

  3. [3]

    M., Stern, D., Moro, A

    Alexander, D. M., Stern, D., Moro, A. D., et al. 2013, The Astrophysical Journal, 773, 125, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/773/2/125

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/773/2/125 2013

  4. [4]

    2009, A&A, 506, 1541, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/200911813

    Alonso-Herrero, A., Garc´ ıa-Mar´ ın, M., Monreal-Ibero, A., et al. 2009, A&A, 506, 1541, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/200911813

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200911813 2009

  5. [5]

    F., et al

    Alonso-Herrero, A., Garc´ ıa-Burillo, S., H¨ onig, S. F., et al. 2021, A&A, 652, A99, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202141219

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141219 2021

  6. [6]

    , keywords =

    Antonucci, R. 1993, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 31, 473, doi: 10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002353 Ar´ evalo, P., Bauer, F. E., Puccetti, S., et al. 2014, ApJ, 791, 81, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/791/2/81

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002353 1993

  7. [7]

    Arnaud, K. A. 1996, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 101, Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems V, ed. G. H. Jacoby & J. Barnes, 17

    1996

  8. [8]

    2019, MNRAS, 489, 2177, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz2289

    Asmus, D. 2019, MNRAS, 489, 2177, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz2289

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2289 2019

  9. [9]

    F., & Gandhi, P

    Asmus, D., H¨ onig, S. F., & Gandhi, P. 2016, The Astrophysical Journal, 822, 109, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/822/2/109

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-637x/822/2/109 2016

  10. [10]

    2011, ApJS, 196, 22, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/196/2/22

    Baes, M., Verstappen, J., De Looze, I., et al. 2011, ApJS, 196, 22, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/196/2/22

    work page doi:10.1088/0067-0049/196/2/22 2011

  11. [11]

    and Copin, Y

    Baes, M., Davies, J. I., Dejonghe, H., et al. 2003, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 343, 1081, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06770.x Balokovi´ c, M., Comastri, A., Harrison, F. A., et al. 2014, ApJ, 794, 111, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/794/2/111 Balokovi´ c, M., Brightman, M., Harrison, F. A., et al. 2018, ApJ, 854, 42, doi: 10.3847/1538-43...

    work page doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06770.x 2003

  12. [12]

    , archivePrefix = "arXiv", eprint =

    Brightman, M., & Nandra, K. 2011, MNRAS, 413, 1206, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18207.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18207.x 2011

  13. [13]

    Bauer, F. E. 2019, A&A, 629, A16, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201834771

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834771 2019

  14. [14]

    1989, ApJL, 340, L5, doi: 10.1086/185425 13

    Cavaliere, A., & Padovani, P. 1989, ApJL, 340, L5, doi: 10.1086/185425 13

    work page doi:10.1086/185425 1989

  15. [15]

    2009, ApJ, 693, 174, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/693/1/174

    Garmire, G. 2009, ApJ, 693, 174, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/693/1/174

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/693/1/174 2009

  16. [16]

    2008, A&A, 485, 417, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20077569

    Dadina, M. 2008, A&A, 485, 417, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20077569

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077569 2008

  17. [17]

    , keywords =

    Davies, R. I., Burtscher, L., Rosario, D., et al. 2015, ApJ, 806, 127, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/806/1/127 De Marco, B., Ponti, G., Cappi, M., et al. 2013, MNRAS, 431, 2441, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stt339 Del Moro, A., Alexander, D. M., Aird, J. A., et al. 2017, ApJ, 849, 57, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa9115

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/806/1/127 2015

  18. [18]

    2023, A&A, 669, A114, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202244678

    Diaz, Y., Hern` andez-Garc´ ıa, L., Ar´ evalo, P., et al. 2023, A&A, 669, A114, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202244678

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244678 2023

  19. [19]

    A., et al

    Dong, J., Mastroserio, G., Garcıa, J. A., et al. 2023, arXiv e-prints. http://arxiv.org/abs/2312.09210

    work page arXiv 2023

  20. [20]

    McHardy, I. M. 2014, MNRAS, 439, 3931, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stu249

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stu249 2014

  21. [21]

    , keywords =

    Fabian, A. C., Celotti, A., & Erlund, M. C. 2006, MNRAS, 373, L16, doi: 10.1111/j.1745-3933.2006.00234.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2006.00234.x 2006

  22. [22]

    , year = 2009, month = may, volume =

    Fabian, A. C., Zoghbi, A., Ross, R. R., et al. 2009, Nature, 459, 540, doi: 10.1038/nature08007

    work page doi:10.1038/nature08007 2009

  23. [23]

    Nahar, S. N. 1992, ApJ, 387, 95, doi: 10.1086/171063 Garc´ ıa, J., Dauser, T., Reynolds, C. S., et al. 2013, ApJ, 768, 146, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/768/2/146 Garc´ ıa, J., & Kallman, T. R. 2010, ApJ, 718, 695, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/718/2/695 Garc´ ıa, J., Dauser, T., Lohfink, A., et al. 2014, ApJ, 782, 76, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/782/2/76

    work page doi:10.1086/171063 1992

  24. [24]

    M., & Fabian, A

    George, I. M., & Fabian, A. C. 1991a, MNRAS, 249, 352, doi: 10.1093/mnras/249.2.352 —. 1991b, MNRAS, 249, 352, doi: 10.1093/mnras/249.2.352

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/249.2.352

  25. [26]

    2012 , month = apr, journal =

    Goad, M. R., Korista, K. T., & Ruff, A. J. 2012, MNRAS, 426, 3086, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21808.x Gravity Collaboration, Sturm, E., Dexter, J., et al. 2018, Nature, 563, 657, doi: 10.1038/s41586-018-0731-9 GRAVITY Collaboration, Amorim, A., Baub¨ ock, M., et al. 2020a, A&A, 643, A154, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202039067 GRAVITY Collaboration, Pfuhl, O...

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21808.x 2012

  26. [27]

    K., Ricci, C., Tortosa, A., et al

    Gupta, K. K., Ricci, C., Tortosa, A., et al. 2021, MNRAS, 504, 428, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab839

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab839 2021

  27. [28]

    1991, ApJL, 380, L51, doi: 10.1086/186171

    Haardt, F., & Maraschi, L. 1991, ApJL, 380, L51, doi: 10.1086/186171 —. 1993, ApJ, 413, 507, doi: 10.1086/173020

    work page doi:10.1086/186171 1991

  28. [29]

    J., Alonso-Herrero, A., et al

    Haidar, H., Rosario, D. J., Alonso-Herrero, A., et al. 2024, Dust beyond the torus: Revealing the mid-infrared heart of local Seyfert ESO 428-G14 with JWST/MIRI, arXiv. http://arxiv.org/abs/2404.16100

    work page arXiv 2024

  29. [30]

    Hao, L., Spoon, H. W. W., Sloan, G. C., et al. 2005, The Astrophysical Journal, 625, L75, doi: 10.1086/431227

    work page doi:10.1086/431227 2005

  30. [31]

    2015, ApJ, 803, 110, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/803/2/110 HI4PI Collaboration, Ben Bekhti, N., Fl¨ oer, L., et al

    Hatziminaoglou, E., Hern´ an-Caballero, A., Feltre, A., & Pi˜ nol Ferrer, N. 2015, ApJ, 803, 110, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/803/2/110 HI4PI Collaboration, Ben Bekhti, N., Fl¨ oer, L., et al. 2016, A&A, 594, A116, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201629178 H¨ onig, S. F., & Beckert, T. 2007, MNRAS, 380, 1172, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12157.x H¨ onig, S. F., Kishim...

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/803/2/110 2015

  31. [32]

    Jaffe, W., Meisenheimer, K., R¨ ottgering, H. J. A., et al. 2004, Nature, 429, 47, doi: 10.1038/nature02531

    work page doi:10.1038/nature02531 2004

  32. [33]

    2005, ApJ, 629, 61, doi: 10.1086/431275

    Kaspi, S., Maoz, D., Netzer, H., et al. 2005, ApJ, 629, 61, doi: 10.1086/431275

    work page doi:10.1086/431275 2005

  33. [34]

    S., Netzer, H., et al

    Kaspi, S., Smith, P. S., Netzer, H., et al. 2000, ApJ, 533, 631, doi: 10.1086/308704

    work page doi:10.1086/308704 2000

  34. [35]

    Kormendy, J., & Ho, L. C. 2013, ARA&A, 51, 511, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101811

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101811 2013

  35. [36]

    2017, ApJ, 850, 74, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa8ec9

    Koss, M., Trakhtenbrot, B., Ricci, C., et al. 2017, ApJ, 850, 74, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa8ec9

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa8ec9 2017

  36. [37]

    H., & Begelman, M

    Krolik, J. H., & Begelman, M. C. 1988, ApJ, 329, 702, doi: 10.1086/166414

    work page doi:10.1086/166414 1988

  37. [38]

    M., et al

    Laloux, B., Georgakakis, A., Alexander, D. M., et al. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2403.07109, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2403.07109

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2403.07109 2024

  38. [39]

    Lamer, G., Uttley, P., & McHardy, I. M. 2000, MNRAS, 319, 949, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03921.x

    work page doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03921.x 2000

  39. [40]

    P., & Zdziarski, A

    Lightman, A. P., & Zdziarski, A. A. 1987, ApJ, 319, 643, doi: 10.1086/165485

    work page doi:10.1086/165485 1987

  40. [41]

    2014, ApJ, 787, 52, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/787/1/52

    Liu, Y., & Li, X. 2014, ApJ, 787, 52, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/787/1/52

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/787/1/52 2014

  41. [42]

    Lodders, K., Palme, H., & Gail, H. P. 2009, Landolt Börnstein, 4B, 712, doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-88055-4 34 L´ opez-Gonzaga, N., Jaffe, W., Burtscher, L., Tristram, K. R. W., & Meisenheimer, K. 2014, A&A, 565, A71, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201323002

    work page doi:10.1007/978-3-540-88055-4 2009

  42. [43]

    1969, Nature, 223, 690, doi: 10.1038/223690a0

    Lynden-Bell, D. 1969, Nature, 223, 690, doi: 10.1038/223690a0 14

    work page doi:10.1038/223690a0 1969

  43. [44]

    Magdziarz, P., & Zdziarski, A. A. 1995a, MNRAS, 273, 837, doi: 10.1093/mnras/273.3.837 —. 1995b, MNRAS, 273, 837, doi: 10.1093/mnras/273.3.837

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/273.3.837

  44. [45]

    2019, ApJ, 872, 8, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aafbeb

    Marchesi, S., Ajello, M., Zhao, X., et al. 2019, ApJ, 872, 8, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aafbeb

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aafbeb 2019

  45. [46]

    2004, MNRAS, 351, 1379, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07876.x

    Marconi, A., Risaliti, G., Gilli, R., et al. 2004, MNRAS, 351, 169, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07765.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07765.x 2004

  46. [47]

    2011, A&A, 526, A36, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201015358

    Marinucci, A., Bianchi, S., Matt, G., et al. 2011, A&A, 526, A36, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201015358

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201015358 2011

  47. [48]

    F., Jimenez R., Lahav O., 2000, @doi [ ] 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03692.x , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000MNRAS.317..965H 317, 965

    Matt, G., Fabian, A. C., Guainazzi, M., et al. 2000, MNRAS, 318, 173, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03721.x

    work page doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03721.x 2000

  48. [49]

    M., Beard, M., Breedt, E., et al

    McHardy, I. M., Beard, M., Breedt, E., et al. 2023, MNRAS, 519, 3366, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac3651

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3651 2023

  49. [50]

    2018, A&A, 619, A20, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201833706 Mendoza-Castrej´ on, S., Dultzin, D., Krongold, Y., Gonz´ alez, J

    Mehdipour, M., & Costantini, E. 2018, A&A, 619, A20, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201833706 Mendoza-Castrej´ on, S., Dultzin, D., Krongold, Y., Gonz´ alez, J. J., & Elitzur, M. 2015, MNRAS, 447, 2437, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stu2566

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833706 2018

  50. [51]

    1908, Annalen der Physik, 330, 377, doi: 10.1002/andp.19083300302

    Mie, G. 1908, Annalen der Physik, 330, 377, doi: 10.1002/andp.19083300302

    work page doi:10.1002/andp.19083300302 1908

  51. [52]

    2009, ApJ, 705, 298, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/705/1/298

    Mor, R., Netzer, H., & Elitzur, M. 2009, ApJ, 705, 298, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/705/1/298

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/705/1/298 2009

  52. [53]

    F., Capozziello, S., & Dainotti, M

    Murphy, K. D., & Yaqoob, T. 2009, MNRAS, 397, 1549, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15025.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15025.x 2009

  53. [54]

    M., Mushotzky, R

    Nandra, K., George, I. M., Mushotzky, R. F., Turner, T. J., & Yaqoob, T. 1997, ApJ, 477, 602, doi: 10.1086/303721

    work page doi:10.1086/303721 1997

  54. [55]

    M., Ivezi´ c,ˇZ., & Elitzur, M

    Nenkova, M., Sirocky, M. M., Ivezi´ c,ˇZ., & Elitzur, M. 2008, ApJ, 685, 147, doi: 10.1086/590482

    work page doi:10.1086/590482 2008

  55. [56]

    , keywords =

    Netzer, H. 2015, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 53, 365, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-082214-122302

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082214-122302 2015

  56. [57]

    D., & Thorne, K

    Novikov, I. D., & Thorne, K. S. 1973, in Black Holes (Les Astres Occlus), 343–450

    1973

  57. [58]

    2011, ApJ, 740, 103, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/740/2/103

    Odaka, H., Aharonian, F., Watanabe, S., et al. 2011, ApJ, 740, 103, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/740/2/103

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/740/2/103 2011

  58. [59]

    2017, A&A, 607, A31, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201629623

    Paltani, S., & Ricci, C. 2017, A&A, 607, A31, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201629623

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629623 2017

  59. [60]

    Peterson, B. M. 1993, PASP, 105, 247, doi: 10.1086/133140

    work page doi:10.1086/133140 1993

  60. [61]

    M., Balonek, T

    Peterson, B. M., Balonek, T. J., Barker, E. S., et al. 1991, ApJ, 368, 119, doi: 10.1086/169675

    work page doi:10.1086/169675 1991

  61. [62]

    M., Ferrarese, L., Gilbert, K

    Peterson, B. M., Ferrarese, L., Gilbert, K. M., et al. 2004, ApJ, 613, 682, doi: 10.1086/423269

    work page doi:10.1086/423269 2004

  62. [63]

    2005, A&A, 432, 15, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20041621

    Piconcelli, E., Jimenez-Bail´ on, E., Guainazzi, M., et al. 2005, A&A, 432, 15, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20041621

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041621 2005

  63. [64]

    2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2411.02270, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2411.02270 Ramos Almeida, C., & Ricci, C

    Psaradaki, I., Mehdipour, M., Rogantini, D., et al. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2411.02270, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2411.02270 Ramos Almeida, C., & Ricci, C. 2017, Nature Astronomy, 1, 679, doi: 10.1038/s41550-017-0232-z Ramos Almeida, C., Levenson, N. A., Rodr´ ıguez Espinosa, J. M., et al. 2009, ApJ, 702, 1127, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/702/2/1127

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2411.02270 2024

  64. [65]

    S., & Fabian, A

    Reynolds, C. S., & Fabian, A. C. 2008, ApJ, 675, 1048, doi: 10.1086/527344

    work page doi:10.1086/527344 2008

  65. [66]

    2023, ApJ, 945, 55, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acb5a6

    Ricci, C., & Paltani, S. 2023, ApJ, 945, 55, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acb5a6

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acb5a6 2023

  66. [67]

    J., et al

    Ricci, C., Ueda, Y., Koss, M. J., et al. 2015, ApJL, 815, L13, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/815/1/L13

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/815/1/l13 2015

  67. [68]

    , keywords =

    Ricci, C., Trakhtenbrot, B., Koss, M. J., et al. 2017a, Nature, 549, 488, doi: 10.1038/nature23906 —. 2017b, ApJS, 233, 17, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/aa96ad

    work page doi:10.1038/nature23906

  68. [69]

    C., Fabian, A

    Ricci, C., Ho, L. C., Fabian, A. C., et al. 2018, MNRAS, 480, 1819, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1879

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1879 2018

  69. [70]

    T., Temple, M

    Ricci, C., Ananna, T. T., Temple, M. J., et al. 2022, ApJ, 938, 67, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac8e67

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8e67 2022

  70. [71]

    1995, MNRAS, 272, 737, doi: 10.1093/mnras/272.4.737

    Rowan-Robinson, M. 1995, MNRAS, 272, 737, doi: 10.1093/mnras/272.4.737

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/272.4.737 1995

  71. [72]

    1998, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol

    Rowan-Robinson, M. 1998, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 133, Science With The NGST, ed. E. P. Smith & A. Koratkar, 119

    1998

  72. [73]

    G., & Buchner, J

    Saha, T., Markowitz, A. G., & Buchner, J. 2021, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 509, 5485, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab3250

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3250 2021

  73. [74]

    Salpeter, E. E. 1964, ApJ, 140, 796, doi: 10.1086/147973

    work page doi:10.1086/147973 1964

  74. [75]

    I., & Sunyaev, R

    Shakura, N. I., & Sunyaev, R. A. 1973, A&A, 24, 337

    1973

  75. [76]

    L., Lightman, A

    Shapiro, S. L., Lightman, A. P., & Eardley, D. M. 1976, ApJ, 204, 187, doi: 10.1086/154162

    work page doi:10.1086/154162 1976

  76. [77]

    W., Yaqoob, T., & Wang, J

    Shu, X. W., Yaqoob, T., & Wang, J. X. 2010, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 187, 581, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/187/2/581

    work page doi:10.1088/0067-0049/187/2/581 2010

  77. [78]

    W., Yaqoob, T., & Wang, J

    Shu, X. W., Yaqoob, T., & Wang, J. X. 2011, ApJ, 738, 147, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/738/2/147

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/738/2/147 2011

  78. [80]

    Stalevski, M., Asmus, D., & Tristram, K. R. W. 2017, MNRAS, 472, 3854, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx2227

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2227 2017

  79. [81]

    2016, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 458, 2288, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw444

    Stalevski, M., Ricci, C., Ueda, Y., et al. 2016, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 458, 2288, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw444

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stw444 2016

  80. [82]

    Stalevski, M., Tristram, K. R. W., & Asmus, D. 2019, MNRAS, 484, 3334, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz220

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz220 2019

Showing first 80 references.