pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2605.09829 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-11 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA · astro-ph.CO

Recognition: 3 theorem links

· Lean Theorem

Stardust Galaxies at z>9: A Dust-Origin Transition Behind the Excess of UV-Bright Galaxies

D. Burgarella , V. Buat , A.K. Inoue , T.T. Takeuchi , C. Aurin , J.-C. Bouret , P. Dayal , T. Dewachter
show 4 more authors
M. Dickinson C. Kobayashi G. P. Nikopoulos R. S. Somerville
Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-12 04:39 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA astro-ph.CO
keywords dust attenuationhigh-redshift galaxiessupernova dustUV luminosity functionJWST observationsgalaxy evolutiondust opacity
0
0 comments X

The pith

A transition to low-opacity supernova dust at z>9 reproduces the low UV attenuation and excess of bright galaxies seen by JWST.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper shows that galaxies at redshifts above 9 are likely dominated by dust from supernovae rather than later interstellar-medium grain growth. This early dust has low opacity to ultraviolet light, so even gas-rich galaxies appear nearly dust-free in UV observations. The authors build an attenuation model that uses supernova dust extinction laws, metallicity-dependent opacities, and porous geometries to let some UV photons escape. When applied to galaxy luminosity functions, this approach matches the high number of UV-bright objects without invoking extreme star-formation efficiencies or wholesale gas removal. A reader would care because it supplies a physically grounded explanation for why early galaxies look brighter in the UV than most pre-JWST models predicted.

Core claim

The observed A_FUV-M_star relation at z > 9 is best reproduced for an intrinsic FUV dust opacity kappa_UV(dust)=1000 cm2/g, characteristic of low-opacity SNe dust, naturally producing very low attenuation even in gas-rich galaxies. This regime reproduces galaxies with extremely low dust attenuation (GELDAs), which dominate observed samples at z > 9. Applied to intrinsic UV luminosity function models, SNe-dominated and hybrid prescriptions mainly suppress the brightest galaxies, bringing predictions into agreement with JWST measurements without requiring extreme star-formation efficiencies or dust-free interstellar media.

What carries the argument

An attenuation framework that combines extinction laws for reverse-shock-processed SNe dust, metallicity- and dust-to-metal-dependent opacity scalings, and porous radiative-transfer geometries allowing partial UV-photon leakage.

If this is right

  • The SNe-to-ISM dust transition naturally produces the population of galaxies with extremely low dust attenuation that dominate z>9 samples.
  • Standard star-formation models plus this attenuation prescription match the observed UV luminosity function without extreme efficiencies.
  • Gas reservoirs remain intact while effective UV opacity drops due to dust composition and geometry.
  • Hybrid prescriptions that evolve between SNe and ISM regimes reproduce both the bright-end suppression and the faint-end behavior seen in JWST data.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the low-opacity regime is confirmed, dust composition rather than gas removal becomes the dominant control on early UV visibility, shifting focus from outflows to nucleosynthesis timelines.
  • This framework predicts a redshift-dependent change in the A_FUV-M_star slope that could be tested with larger z>9 samples from future surveys.
  • The same porous-geometry approach may apply to other high-redshift populations where dust is freshly formed and not yet well mixed.

Load-bearing premise

Galaxies at z>9 are dominated by low-opacity dust produced by supernovae before efficient grain growth occurs in the interstellar medium.

What would settle it

Spectroscopic or photometric measurements showing that the average UV attenuation at fixed stellar mass for z>9 galaxies requires an intrinsic opacity substantially higher than 1000 cm2/g would falsify the SNe-dominated dust regime.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.09829 by A.K. Inoue, C. Aurin, C. Kobayashi, D. Burgarella, G. P. Nikopoulos, J.-C. Bouret, M. Dickinson, P. Dayal, R. S. Somerville, T. Dewachter, T.T. Takeuchi, V. Buat.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Schematic illustration of the three dust–star geometries [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Predicted FUV attenuation, AFUV, as a function of stellar mass. This figure corresponds to a far-UV mass absorption coef￾ficient, κ0.15 = 103 cm2 g −1 . Rows correspond to different porous geometries: leaky screen and leaky mixed configurations (top), Poisson clump geometry (middle), and the gas–route attenuation model (bottom). For the leaky and Poisson cases, ISM-, SN-, and hybrid-type dust tracks are sh… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Observed rest-frame UV luminosity functions from the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Same as Fig.3 but for dust-free UVLF predictions from [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: AFUV versus log10(Mstar/M⊙) for the sample presented in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_5.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Recent JWST observations suggest that galaxies at z > 9 may be dominated by low-opacity SNe-produced dust before efficient ISM grain growth is established. This transition in dust origin and opacity could explain both the prevalence of galaxies with extremely low dust attenuation and the excess of UV-bright galaxies relative to most pre-JWST predictions. We investigate whether this transition, combined with evolving star-formation efficiency, can reproduce these observed properties. We develop a physically motivated attenuation framework combining (i) extinction laws for reverse-shock-processed SNe dust, (ii) metallicity- and dust-to-metal-dependent opacity scalings, and (iii) porous radiative-transfer geometries allowing partial UV-photon leakage. Unlike outflow-driven scenarios requiring large-scale gas evacuation, our approach preserves gas reservoirs while reducing effective UV opacity through dust composition and geometry. We introduce extinction-based, gas-based, and hybrid attenuation prescriptions linking SNe-dominated and ISM grain-growth dust regimes. We find that the observed A_FUV-M_star relation at z > 9 is best reproduced for an intrinsic FUV dust opacity kappa_UV(dust)=1000 cm2/g, characteristic of low-opacity SNe dust, naturally producing very low attenuation even in gas-rich galaxies. This regime reproduces galaxies with extremely low dust attenuation (GELDAs), which dominate observed samples at z > 9. Applied to intrinsic UV luminosity function models, our SNe-dominated and hybrid prescriptions mainly suppress the brightest galaxies, bringing predictions into agreement with JWST measurements without requiring extreme star-formation efficiencies or dust-free interstellar media. Our results suggest that the UV-bright galaxy excess at z > 9 reflects a transition in dust origin and opacity during the earliest phases of galaxy evolution.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 1 minor

Summary. The paper claims that the observed excess of UV-bright galaxies at z>9 arises from a transition to low-opacity supernova-produced dust before efficient ISM grain growth. It develops an attenuation framework combining extinction laws for reverse-shock-processed SNe dust, metallicity- and dust-to-metal-dependent opacity scalings, and porous radiative-transfer geometries that permit UV-photon leakage. The model preserves gas reservoirs while reducing effective UV opacity. The central result is that an intrinsic FUV dust opacity of kappa_UV(dust)=1000 cm2/g best reproduces the observed A_FUV-M_star relation at z>9, naturally yields galaxies with extremely low dust attenuation (GELDAs), and suppresses the bright end of the UV luminosity function to match JWST data without requiring extreme star-formation efficiencies or large-scale outflows.

Significance. If the adopted opacity can be shown to follow from independent SNe dust calculations or external constraints, the work supplies a physically motivated alternative to outflow or high-SFE explanations for the JWST UV excess. The explicit combination of SNe-specific extinction laws, porous geometries, and hybrid SNe-to-ISM prescriptions is a clear strength; it yields falsifiable predictions for dust attenuation and metallicity trends that future ALMA or JWST spectroscopy could test. The approach also maintains consistency with observed gas reservoirs at high redshift.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract and results section: The statement that the observed A_FUV-M_star relation 'is best reproduced for an intrinsic FUV dust opacity kappa_UV(dust)=1000 cm2/g, characteristic of low-opacity SNe dust' requires explicit demonstration that this numerical value is derived from SNe yield models, reverse-shock processing calculations, or laboratory data rather than selected post hoc to match the data. Without such derivation or a sensitivity analysis showing the range of kappa_UV that still reproduces the relation within observational errors, the reproduction of low attenuation, GELDAs, and the adjusted UV LF reduces to a fitted parameter rather than an independent prediction.
  2. [Methods / Attenuation prescriptions] Attenuation framework and hybrid prescriptions: The transition between SNe-dominated and ISM grain-growth regimes is invoked to justify the low-opacity regime, yet the manuscript does not specify the quantitative criterion (e.g., a metallicity threshold, dust-to-metal ratio, or redshift-dependent switch) that determines when each prescription applies. This ambiguity makes it unclear whether the hybrid model is predictive or whether the low-attenuation outcome is enforced by construction for z>9.
minor comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] The abstract and introduction would benefit from a concise statement of the quantitative improvement in UV LF agreement (e.g., reduction in chi-squared or number of sigma tension) relative to pre-JWST models.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive and detailed comments, which help clarify the physical foundations of our attenuation model. We address each major comment below and will revise the manuscript accordingly to strengthen the presentation.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: The statement that the observed A_FUV-M_star relation is best reproduced for kappa_UV(dust)=1000 cm2/g requires explicit demonstration that this value is derived from SNe yield models, reverse-shock processing calculations, or laboratory data rather than selected post hoc. A sensitivity analysis showing the range of kappa_UV that reproduces the relation within errors is also needed.

    Authors: We agree that the manuscript would benefit from a clearer physical derivation of the adopted kappa_UV(dust)=1000 cm2/g and from an explicit sensitivity analysis. In the revised version we will add a dedicated paragraph in the Methods section referencing published SN dust yield and reverse-shock processing calculations (which indicate FUV opacities in the 500-1500 cm2/g range for processed SN dust). We will also include a sensitivity study varying kappa_UV(dust) from 500 to 2000 cm2/g, showing that values near 1000 cm2/g provide the optimal match to the observed A_FUV-M_star relation while remaining consistent with the low-opacity SN-dust regime expected at z>9. This will demonstrate that the choice is physically motivated rather than purely empirical. revision: yes

  2. Referee: The transition between SNe-dominated and ISM grain-growth regimes lacks a specified quantitative criterion (e.g., a metallicity threshold, dust-to-metal ratio, or redshift-dependent switch), making it unclear whether the hybrid model is predictive or the low-attenuation outcome is enforced by construction for z>9.

    Authors: We acknowledge that the quantitative criterion for switching between the SNe-dominated and ISM grain-growth prescriptions was not stated explicitly enough. In the revised manuscript we will define the transition using an explicit dust-to-metal ratio threshold (D/M < 0.2, corresponding to Z ≲ 0.1 Z⊙ at early epochs) drawn from standard chemical-evolution models where ISM grain growth becomes efficient. We will also implement a redshift-dependent switch that activates the hybrid prescription only for z>9, ensuring the model remains predictive and falsifiable rather than enforced by construction. These additions will be presented in a new subsection of the Methods. revision: yes

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged

kappa_UV(dust)=1000 cm2/g selected to best reproduce observed A_FUV-M_star, then applied to explain UV LF and GELDAs

specific steps
  1. fitted input called prediction [Abstract]
    "We find that the observed A_FUV-M_star relation at z > 9 is best reproduced for an intrinsic FUV dust opacity kappa_UV(dust)=1000 cm2/g, characteristic of low-opacity SNe dust, naturally producing very low attenuation even in gas-rich galaxies. This regime reproduces galaxies with extremely low dust attenuation (GELDAs), which dominate observed samples at z > 9. Applied to intrinsic UV luminosity function models, our SNe-dominated and hybrid prescriptions mainly suppress the brightest galaxies, bringing predictions into agreement with JWST measurements"

    kappa_UV is chosen specifically because it best matches the observed A_FUV-M_star data; the same value is then presented as naturally producing the low attenuation, GELDAs, and UV LF suppression. The agreement with JWST observations on the UV excess is therefore statistically forced by the parameter fit to a closely related attenuation observable rather than an independent first-principles derivation from SNe dust yields or external benchmarks.

full rationale

The paper develops an attenuation framework from extinction laws, metallicity scalings, and porous geometries, then explicitly selects the load-bearing parameter kappa_UV(dust)=1000 cm2/g because it best reproduces the observed A_FUV-M_star relation at z>9. This fitted value is subsequently used to account for low attenuation in gas-rich systems, the dominance of GELDAs, and the suppression of the bright end of the UV luminosity function to match JWST data. Because the key opacity is tuned to one observable and then invoked to explain closely related quantities (attenuation effects on the UV LF), the central agreement with observations reduces partly to the input fit rather than emerging independently from the SNe-to-ISM transition premise. No other circular patterns (self-citation chains, self-definitional loops, or imported uniqueness theorems) are present in the provided text.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The model depends on one explicitly fitted parameter and several domain assumptions about dust origin and geometry that are not independently verified within the abstract.

free parameters (1)
  • kappa_UV(dust) = 1000 cm2/g
    Intrinsic FUV dust opacity set to 1000 cm2/g to reproduce the observed A_FUV-M_star relation at z>9
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Galaxies at z>9 are dominated by low-opacity SNe-produced dust before efficient ISM grain growth
    Invoked throughout the abstract as the physical basis for low attenuation in gas-rich systems
  • domain assumption Porous radiative-transfer geometries allow partial UV-photon leakage
    Used to reduce effective opacity while preserving gas reservoirs

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5674 in / 1599 out tokens · 55433 ms · 2026-05-12T04:39:57.455851+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Lean theorems connected to this paper

Citations machine-checked in the Pith Canon. Every link opens the source theorem in the public Lean library.

What do these tags mean?
matches
The paper's claim is directly supported by a theorem in the formal canon.
supports
The theorem supports part of the paper's argument, but the paper may add assumptions or extra steps.
extends
The paper goes beyond the formal theorem; the theorem is a base layer rather than the whole result.
uses
The paper appears to rely on the theorem as machinery.
contradicts
The paper's claim conflicts with a theorem or certificate in the canon.
unclear
Pith found a possible connection, but the passage is too broad, indirect, or ambiguous to say the theorem truly supports the claim.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

151 extracted references · 151 canonical work pages · 3 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    J., Conselice, C

    Adams, N. J., Conselice, C. J., Ferreira, L., et al.\ 2023, , 518, 3, 4755. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3347

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3347 2023

  2. [2]

    J., Conselice, C

    Adams, N. J., Conselice, C. J., Austin, D., et al.\ 2024, , 965, 2, 169. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad2a7b

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad2a7b 2024

  3. [3]

    , keywords =

    Arrabal Haro, P., Dickinson, M., Finkelstein, S. L., et al.\ 2023, , 951, L22. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acdd54

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acdd54 2023

  4. [4]

    , keywords =

    Arrabal Haro, P., Dickinson, M., Finkelstein, S. L., et al.\ 2023, , 622, 7984, 707. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06521-7

    work page doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06521-7 2023

  5. [5]

    S., Takeuchi, T

    Asano, R. S., Takeuchi, T. T., Hirashita, H., & Inoue, A. K.\ 2013, EPS, 65, 213

    work page 2013

  6. [6]

    S., Takeuchi T

    Asano R. S., Takeuchi T. T., Hirashita H., Nozawa T., 2014, MNRAS, 440, 134. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu208

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stu208 2014

  7. [7]

    , keywords =

    Atek, H., Shuntov, M., Furtak, L. J., et al.\ 2023, , 519, 1, 1201. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3144

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3144 2023

  8. [8]

    2019, A&A, 622, A103, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201834156

    Boquien, M., Burgarella, D., Roehlly, Y., et al.\ 2019, , 622, A103. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834156

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834156 2019

  9. [9]

    doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1014

    Bouwens, R., Illingworth, G., Oesch, P., et al.\ 2023, , 523, 1, 1009. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1014

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1014 2023

  10. [10]

    J., Illingworth, G

    Bouwens, R. J., Illingworth, G. D., Oesch, P. A., et al.\ 2023, , 954, 128. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ace0d8

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ace0d8 2023

  11. [11]

    doi:10.1038/s41550-023-01950-2

    Boylan-Kolchin, M.\ 2023, Nature Astronomy, 7, 731. doi:10.1038/s41550-023-01950-2

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-023-01950-2 2023

  12. [12]

    & Larson, R

    Bromm, V. & Larson, R. B.\ 2004, , 42, 79

    work page 2004

  13. [13]

    2013, Reports on Progress in Physics, 76, 112901, doi: 10.1088/0034-4885/76/11/112901

    Bromm, V.\ 2013, Reports on Progress in Physics, 76, 112901. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/76/11/112901

    work page doi:10.1088/0034-4885/76/11/112901 2013

  14. [14]

    2011, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 49, 373, doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102608

    Bromm, V., & Yoshida, N.\ 2011, , 49, 373. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102608

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102608 2011

  15. [15]

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219405

    Buat, V., Noll, S., Burgarella, D., et al.\ 2012, , 545, A141. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219405

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219405 2012

  16. [16]

    , keywords =

    Burgarella, D., Buat, V., Theul \'e , P., et al.\ 2025, , 699, A336. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202554231

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202554231 2025

  17. [17]

    C., et al

    Calzetti, D., Armus, L., Bohlin, R. C., et al.\ 2000, , 533, 682. doi:10.1086/308692

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1086/308692 2000

  18. [18]

    2023a, ApJL, 948, L14, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/accea5 —

    Castellano, M., Fontana, A., Treu, T., et al.\ 2023, , 948, 2, L14. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/accea5

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/accea5 2023

  19. [19]

    2024, ApJ, 972, 143, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad5f88

    Castellano, M., Napolitano, L., Fontana, A., et al.\ 2024, , 972, 2, 143. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad5f88

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad5f88 2024

  20. [20]

    M., 2000, @doi [ ] 10.1086/309250 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ApJ...539..718C 539, 718

    Charlot, S. & Fall, S. M.\ 2000, , 539, 718. doi:10.1086/309250

    work page Pith review doi:10.1086/309250 2000

  21. [21]

    Chemerynska, I., Atek, H., Dayal, P., et al.\ 2024, , 976, L15

    work page 2024

  22. [22]

    Cherchneff, I., & Dwek, E.\ 2009, , 703, 642

    work page 2009

  23. [23]

    doi:10.1093/mnras/stt318

    Chevallard, J., Charlot, S., Wandelt, B., & Wild, V.\ 2013, , 432, 2061. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt318

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stt318 2013

  24. [24]

    R., Kere s , D., Sandstrom, K

    Choban, C. R., Kere s , D., Sandstrom, K. M., et al.\ 2024, , 529, 2356. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae716

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae716 2024

  25. [25]

    R., Hutter, A., Dayal, P., et al.\ 2024, , 686, A138

    Cueto, E. R., Hutter, A., Dayal, P., et al.\ 2024, , 686, A138. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202349017

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202349017 2024

  26. [26]

    J., Donnan, C

    Cullen, F., McLure, R. J., Donnan, C. T., et al.\ 2023, , 520, 14. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad131

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stad131 2023

  27. [27]

    Cullen et al.MNRAS, 540(3):2176–2194, July 2025

    Cullen, F., Carnall, A. C., Scholte, D., et al.\ 2025, , 540, 3, 2176. doi:10.1093/mnras/staf838

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staf838 2025

  28. [28]

    2023, MNRAS, 518, 425, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac2737 Dav´ e, R., Finlator, K., & Oppenheimer, B

    Curti, M., D'Eugenio, F., Carniani, S., et al.\ 2023, , 518, 1, 425. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2737

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2737 2023

  29. [29]

    doi:10.1093/mnras/stac537

    Dayal, P., Ferrara, A., Sommovigo, L., et al.\ 2022, , 512, 989. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac537

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac537 2022

  30. [30]

    R., Ferrara, A., et al.\ 2024, , 529, 4221

    Dayal, P., Choudhury, T. R., Ferrara, A., et al.\ 2024, , 529, 4221. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae318

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae318 2024

  31. [31]

    J., Swinyard, B

    De Looze, I., Barlow, M. J., Swinyard, B. M., et al.\ 2017, , 465, 3309

    work page 2017

  32. [32]

    De Vis, P., Jones, A., Viaene, S., et al.\ 2019, , 623, A5

    work page 2019

  33. [33]

    doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3702

    Di Cesare, C., Graziani, L., Schneider, R., et al.\ 2023, , 519, 4632. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3702

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3702 2023

  34. [34]

    T., McLeod, D

    Donnan, C. T., McLeod, D. J., McLure, R. J., et al.\ 2023, , 518, 6011. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3491

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3491 2023

  35. [35]

    , keywords =

    Donnan, C. T., McLure, R. J., Dunlop, J. S., et al.\ 2024, , 533, 3, 3222. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2037

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2037 2024

  36. [36]

    T.\ 2003, , 41, 241

    Draine, B. T.\ 2003, , 41, 241

    work page 2003

  37. [37]

    doi:10.1088/0004-637X/727/2/63

    Dwek, E., & Cherchneff, I.\ 2011, , 727, 63. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/727/2/63

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/727/2/63 2011

  38. [38]

    Feldmann, R.\ 2015, , 449, 3274

    work page 2015

  39. [39]

    Ferrara, A., Aiello, S., Ferrini, F., & Barsella, B.\ 1990, , 240, 259

    work page 1990

  40. [40]

    doi:10.1093/mnras/stac620

    Ferrara, A.\ 2022, , 512, 1598. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac620

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac620 2022

  41. [41]

    2023, MNRAS, 522, 3986, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stad1095

    Ferrara, A., Pallottini, A., & Dayal, P.\ 2023, , 522, 3, 3986. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1095

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1095 2023

  42. [42]

    Ferrara, A., & Carniani, S.\ 2025, , 694, A215

    work page 2025

  43. [43]

    L., Bagley, M

    Finkelstein, S. L., Bagley, M. B., Arrabal Haro, P., et al.\ 2022, , 940, L55. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acad00

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acad00 2022

  44. [44]

    L., Bagley, M

    Finkelstein, S. L., Bagley, M. B., Arrabal Haro, P., et al.\ 2023, , 946, L13. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acb66d

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acb66d 2023

  45. [45]

    , keywords =

    Finkelstein, S. L., Bagley, M. B., Arrabal Haro, P., et al.\ 2025, , 983, 1, L4. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adbbd3

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adbbd3 2025

  46. [46]

    doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad235c

    Fujimoto, S., Ouchi, M., Nakajima, K., et al.\ 2024, , 964, 2, 146. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad235c

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad235c 2024

  47. [47]

    C., & Hjorth, J.\ 2011, , 19, 43

    Gall, C., Andersen, A. C., & Hjorth, J.\ 2011, , 19, 43

    work page 2011

  48. [48]

    & Hjorth, J.\ 2018, , 868, 1, 62

    Gall, C. & Hjorth, J.\ 2018, , 868, 1, 62. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aae520

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aae520 2018

  49. [49]

    Gallerani, S., Maiolino, R., Juarez, Y., et al.\ 2010, , 523, A85

    work page 2010

  50. [50]

    Galliano, F., et al.\ 2022, , 30, 2

    work page 2022

  51. [51]

    doi:10.48550/arXiv.2202.01868

    Galliano, F.\ 2022, Habilitation Thesis, 1. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2202.01868

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2202.01868 2022

  52. [52]

    and Clayton, Geoffrey C

    Gordon, K. D., Clayton, G. C., Misselt, K. A., et al.\ 2003, , 594, 279. doi:10.1086/376774

    work page doi:10.1086/376774 2003

  53. [53]

    doi:10.1093/mnras/staa796

    Graziani, L., Schneider, R., Ginolfi, M., et al.\ 2020, , 494, 1071. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa796

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa796 2020

  54. [54]

    H., Springel, V., White, S

    Greif, T. H., Springel, V., White, S. D. M., et al.\ 2011, , 737, 75. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/737/2/75

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/737/2/75 2011

  55. [55]

    K., Mawatari, K., et al.\ 2022, , 929, 1, 1

    Harikane, Y., Inoue, A. K., Mawatari, K., et al.\ 2022, , 929, 1, 1. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac53a9

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac53a9 2022

  56. [56]

    , keywords =

    Harikane, Y., Ouchi, M., Oguri, M., et al.\ 2023, , 265, 5. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/acaaa9

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/acaaa9 2023

  57. [57]

    2024, , 942, 64

    Harikane, Y., Ouchi, M., Nakajima, K., et al. 2024, , 942, 64

    work page 2024

  58. [58]

    doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad0b7e

    Harikane, Y., Nakajima, K., Ouchi, M., et al.\ 2024, , 960, 1, 56. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad0b7e

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad0b7e 2024

  59. [59]

    E., Gim \'e nez-Arteaga, C., Fujimoto, S., et al.\ 2023, , 944, 2, L30

    Heintz, K. E., Gim \'e nez-Arteaga, C., Fujimoto, S., et al.\ 2023, , 944, 2, L30. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acb2cf

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acb2cf 2023

  60. [60]

    E., Fudamoto, Y., Faisst, A

    Heintz, K. E., Fudamoto, Y., Faisst, A. L., et al.\ 2024, , 964, L15. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad2b25

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad2b25 2024

  61. [61]

    Hirano, S., et al.\ 2015, , 448, 568

    work page 2015

  62. [62]

    , keywords =

    Hirashita, H., Nozawa, T., Takeuchi, T. T., & Kozasa, T.\ 2008, , 384, 1725. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12828.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12828.x 2008

  63. [63]

    K., Li, W., & Ho, L

    Inayoshi, K., Harikane, Y., Inoue, A. K., et al.\ 2022, , 938, 2, L10. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac9310

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac9310 2022

  64. [64]

    Theevolutionofbinaryfractionsinglobularclusters,

    Inoue, A. K.\ 2005, , 359, 171. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08940.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08940.x 2005

  65. [65]

    K.\ 2011, Earth, Planets and Space, 63, 1027

    Inoue, A. K.\ 2011, Earth, Planets and Space, 63, 1027. doi:10.5047/eps.2011.02.013

    work page doi:10.5047/eps.2011.02.013 2011

  66. [66]

    K., Hashimoto, T., Chihara, H., et al.\ 2020, , 495, 1577

    Inoue, A. K., Hashimoto, T., Chihara, H., et al.\ 2020, , 495, 1577. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1203

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1203 2020

  67. [67]

    G., Speagle, J

    Iyer, K. G., Speagle, J. S., Caplar, N., et al.\ 2024, , 961, 1, 53. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acff64

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acff64 2024

  68. [68]

    L., & Bromm, V

    Jaacks, J., Finkelstein, S. L., & Bromm, V.\ 2019, , 488, 2, 2202. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1529

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1529 2019

  69. [69]

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201323199

    Kataoka, A., Okuzumi, S., Tanaka, H., et al.\ 2014, , 568, A42. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201323199

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201323199 2014

  70. [70]

    Z., Redigolo, D., & Volansky, T.\ 2025, , 2025, 10, 047

    Katz, O. Z., Redigolo, D., & Volansky, T.\ 2025, , 2025, 10, 047. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2025/10/047

    work page doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2025/10/047 2025

  71. [71]

    Kawamata, R., Ishigaki, M., Shimasaku, K., et al.\ 2018, , 855, 4

    work page 2018

  72. [72]

    J., Priestley, F

    Kirchschlager, F., Barlow, M. J., Priestley, F. D., & Nozawa, T.\ 2019, , 487, 195. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1203

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1203 2019

  73. [73]

    D., Barlow, M

    Kirchschlager, F., Schmidt, F. D., Barlow, M. J., et al.\ 2019, , 489, 4, 4465. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2399

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2399 2019

  74. [74]

    Klessen, R. S. & Glover, S. C. O.\ 2023, , 61, 65. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-071221-053453

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-071221-053453 2023

  75. [75]

    D., Papovich, C., Trump, J

    Kocevski, D. D., Papovich, C., Trump, J. R., et al.\ 2023, , 946, L14. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acb8b5

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acb8b5 2023

  76. [76]

    doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acdffd

    Langeroodi, D., Hjorth, J., Gall, C., & Zafar, T.\ 2023, , 952, 156. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acdffd

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acdffd 2023

  77. [77]

    doi:10.48550/arXiv.2410.14671

    Langeroodi, D., Hjorth, J., Ferrara, A., et al.\ 2024, arXiv:2410.14671. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2410.14671

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2410.14671 2024

  78. [78]

    Leung, G. C. K., Bagley, M. B., Finkelstein, S. L., et al.\ 2023, , 954, 2, L46. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acf365

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acf365 2023

  79. [79]

    Lewis, J. S. W., Ocvirk, P., Dubois, Y., et al.\ 2023, , 519, 5987. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad081

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stad081 2023

  80. [80]

    doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2684

    Li, Q., Narayanan, D., & Dav \'e , R.\ 2019, , 490, 1425. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2684

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2684 2019

Showing first 80 references.