pith. sign in

arxiv: 2605.22400 · v1 · pith:CMMU3K3Inew · submitted 2026-05-21 · 🌌 astro-ph.IM · astro-ph.CO

STARFIRE-2: Can we detect the global redshifted 21-cm signal from the cosmic dawn in Earth orbit?

Yogen Pranesh (1 , 2) , Mayuri Sathyanarayana Rao (2) , Saurabh Singh (2) ((1) Department of Physics , University of Rome Tor Vergata , (2) Raman Research Institute , Bangalore) This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-22 02:13 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.IM astro-ph.CO
keywords 21-cm cosmologycosmic dawnRFIEarth orbitglobal signalFM radiosimulationSTARFIRE-2
0
0 comments X

The pith

Simulations show a low-Earth near-polar orbit can suppress FM interference enough to detect the cosmic dawn 21-cm signal.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

Detecting the redshifted 21-cm signal from the cosmic dawn is hindered by strong terrestrial RFI from FM radio. The paper introduces STARFIRE-2 to simulate this interference for radiometers in Earth orbit. Results suggest that a low-Earth, near-polar orbit for a thermal noise limited instrument minimizes RFI, allowing recovery of most plausible signals in mock observations. This positions Earth orbit as a practical stepping stone toward detecting signals from the early universe without needing immediate lunar farside placement.

Core claim

The paper claims that simulations with the STARFIRE-2 algorithm demonstrate the feasibility of detecting the global 21-cm signal from the cosmic dawn in Earth orbit, specifically in low-Earth near-polar orbits where RFI is reduced sufficiently for high-confidence recovery of theoretically plausible signals using a reference experiment like PRATUSH.

What carries the argument

STARFIRE-2 algorithm that builds a global FM transmitter database with statistical compensation for incomplete data and simulates RFI in various orbital scenarios to optimize for minimal interference.

Load-bearing premise

The statistical compensation methods accurately represent real-world FM transmitter locations, powers, and frequencies, assuming they are the dominant RFI source without major unmodeled systematics.

What would settle it

If actual observations from a low-Earth near-polar orbit show interference levels significantly higher than simulated or fail to recover the expected 21-cm signals in a thermal noise limited setup, the feasibility conclusion would be challenged.

read the original abstract

Detecting the redshifted global 21-cm signal from the cosmic dawn (CD) remains a major challenge due to strong terrestrial Radio Frequency Interference (RFI), particularly dominated by Frequency Modulation (FM) transmissions in the 88-110 MHz range. While observations from the radio-quiet lunar farside are ideal, Earth orbit offers an intermediate and simpler alternative that may mitigate several limitations of ground-based experiments. We assess the feasibility of detecting the global 21-cm signal from Earth orbit by quantifying FM-based RFI at different altitudes and orbital configurations. We present STARFIRE-2 (Simulation of TerrestriAl Radio Frequency Interference in oRbits around Earth -- 2), an algorithm that estimates FM transmitter-based RFI intercepted by radiometers in orbit. The model constructs a global FM transmitter database and compensates for incomplete data using statistical methods. Using PRATUSH as the reference experiment, we simulate a range of orbital scenarios to identify configurations that minimize RFI and optimize sensitivity for global 21-cm detection. The algorithm can also be adapted for other experiments. Simulations indicate that conducting such an experiment from Earth orbit is feasible for a thermal noise limited instrument placed in a low-Earth, near-polar orbit. Mock sky observations further demonstrate that most theoretically plausible cosmic dawn 21-cm signals can be recovered with high confidence under these optimized orbital conditions.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents STARFIRE-2, an algorithm that builds a global FM transmitter database, applies statistical compensation for incomplete data, and simulates RFI levels for orbital radiometers. Using PRATUSH as reference, it identifies low-Earth near-polar orbits as configurations that keep FM RFI below thresholds allowing thermal-noise-limited detection of the cosmic-dawn global 21-cm signal; mock-sky observations are then used to demonstrate high-confidence recovery of most plausible 21-cm signals.

Significance. If the RFI model holds, the result would establish Earth orbit as a viable intermediate platform between ground-based and lunar-farside observations, offering a simpler path to global 21-cm measurements while providing an adaptable simulation framework for other experiments.

major comments (2)
  1. [§3] §3 (STARFIRE-2 algorithm and database construction): The statistical compensation methods used to fill gaps in transmitter locations, powers, and frequencies are load-bearing for the RFI maps that underpin the feasibility claim for low-Earth near-polar orbits. No validation against real orbital RFI measurements or independent datasets is presented, so systematic underestimation of urban clusters or power-law assumptions could produce overly optimistic interference levels and directly weaken the conclusion that optimized orbits remain thermal-noise limited.
  2. [§5] §5 (mock sky observations and recovery): The high-confidence recovery of plausible 21-cm signals is demonstrated only under the forward-simulated RFI model; without an end-to-end test that includes realistic residuals from the unvalidated statistical compensation step, the quantitative support for the central detection claim remains incomplete.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Figure 4] Figure 4 (RFI maps): axis labels and color-bar units should explicitly state whether values are in Kelvin or Jy, and the orbital altitude range should be labeled on the panels for immediate readability.
  2. [Eq. (7)] Notation: the definition of the effective RFI temperature T_RFI in Eq. (7) should clarify whether it already folds in the beam response or whether that factor appears separately in the sensitivity calculation.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 1 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive comments on our manuscript. We address each major comment below and have revised the manuscript accordingly to improve clarity and robustness of our claims.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [§3] §3 (STARFIRE-2 algorithm and database construction): The statistical compensation methods used to fill gaps in transmitter locations, powers, and frequencies are load-bearing for the RFI maps that underpin the feasibility claim for low-Earth near-polar orbits. No validation against real orbital RFI measurements or independent datasets is presented, so systematic underestimation of urban clusters or power-law assumptions could produce overly optimistic interference levels and directly weaken the conclusion that optimized orbits remain thermal-noise limited.

    Authors: We agree that the statistical compensation is central to the RFI estimates and that validation would be ideal. The STARFIRE-2 model relies on publicly available transmitter databases supplemented by statistical filling based on population density and known FM band characteristics. We have now added a dedicated paragraph in Section 3.2 discussing the assumptions (including power-law distributions for power and frequency) and their potential impact on urban RFI underestimation. We also compare the resulting RFI levels qualitatively with published ground-based RFI measurements from similar frequency ranges. However, we note that comprehensive, calibrated orbital RFI data at 88-110 MHz from low-Earth orbit is not readily available in the literature for direct quantitative validation. This limitation is now explicitly stated in the revised manuscript. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [§5] §5 (mock sky observations and recovery): The high-confidence recovery of plausible 21-cm signals is demonstrated only under the forward-simulated RFI model; without an end-to-end test that includes realistic residuals from the unvalidated statistical compensation step, the quantitative support for the central detection claim remains incomplete.

    Authors: We appreciate this point regarding the need for more realistic error propagation. In the revised Section 5, we have included an additional analysis where we simulate the effect of potential residuals from the statistical compensation by adding Gaussian noise to the RFI power levels (with standard deviation corresponding to 15% uncertainty based on the compensation method). The mock observations are then re-processed, and we show that the signal recovery confidence remains high for the majority of the parameter space explored, although the detection significance decreases modestly in the presence of these residuals. This provides a more complete assessment of the robustness of our conclusions. revision: yes

standing simulated objections not resolved
  • Direct quantitative validation of the RFI model against actual orbital measurements, as no suitable independent dataset was identified or available for this purpose.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; derivation relies on independent external data and forward modeling

full rationale

The paper constructs STARFIRE-2 to model FM RFI from a global transmitter database (with statistical gap-filling) and runs forward simulations plus mock-sky injections of plausible 21-cm signals to test recovery under different orbits. These steps use external transmitter catalogs and theoretical signal templates as inputs rather than fitting any parameter to the target 21-cm signal or reducing the feasibility conclusion to a self-citation chain by construction. The reference to PRATUSH supplies only instrument parameters and does not bear the load of the central orbital-RFI result, which remains independently testable against the modeled interference maps.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The model depends on an external global FM transmitter database whose completeness is addressed statistically, plus the assumption that the instrument operates in a thermal-noise-limited regime with no other systematics.

free parameters (1)
  • Statistical parameters for compensating incomplete FM transmitter data
    The abstract states that statistical methods are used to compensate for incomplete data, implying fitted or assumed parameters for transmitter distribution and power.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption FM transmissions in the 88-110 MHz range are the dominant source of terrestrial RFI for this experiment
    Explicitly stated in the abstract as the primary challenge.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5824 in / 1466 out tokens · 51864 ms · 2026-05-22T02:13:30.233432+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Lean theorems connected to this paper

Citations machine-checked in the Pith Canon. Every link opens the source theorem in the public Lean library.

What do these tags mean?
matches
The paper's claim is directly supported by a theorem in the formal canon.
supports
The theorem supports part of the paper's argument, but the paper may add assumptions or extra steps.
extends
The paper goes beyond the formal theorem; the theorem is a base layer rather than the whole result.
uses
The paper appears to rely on the theorem as machinery.
contradicts
The paper's claim conflicts with a theorem or certificate in the canon.
unclear
Pith found a possible connection, but the passage is too broad, indirect, or ambiguous to say the theorem truly supports the claim.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

65 extracted references · 65 canonical work pages · 7 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    Ghosh and M

    S. Ghosh and M. Sathyanarayana Rao and S. Singh , keywords =. STARFIRE: An algorithm for estimating radio frequency interference in orbits around Earth , journal =. 2023 , issn =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ascom.2023.100727 , url =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.ascom.2023.100727 2023

  2. [2]

    Map India , pages=

    GeoTIFF-A standard image file format for GIS applications , author=. Map India , pages=

    work page

  3. [3]

    Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics , year = 2014, month = feb, volume =

    Selection of radio astronomical observation sites and its dependence on human generated RFI. Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics , year = 2014, month = feb, volume =. doi:10.1088/1674-4527/14/2/012 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1088/1674-4527/14/2/012 2014

  4. [4]

    Study on Real-Time Navigation Data Model Based on ESRI Shapefile , year=

    Xia, Kai and Wei, Chao , booktitle=. Study on Real-Time Navigation Data Model Based on ESRI Shapefile , year=

    work page

  5. [5]

    Neural computation , volume=

    A method for selecting the bin size of a time histogram , author=. Neural computation , volume=. 2007 , publisher=

    work page 2007

  6. [6]

    , keywords =

    Recovering the wedge modes lost to 21-cm foregrounds. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1158 , archivePrefix =. 2102.08382 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1158

  7. [7]

    Harris and K

    Charles R. Harris and K. Jarrod Millman and St. Array programming with. 2020 , month = sep, journal =. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2 , publisher =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2 2020

  8. [8]

    Skyfield: High precision research-grade positions for planets and Earth satellites generator

    work page

  9. [9]

    , Title =

    Armand, Alex and Atwell, Paul and Gomes, Joseph F. , Title =. American Economic Review , Volume =. 2020 , Month =. doi:10.1257/aer.20181135 , URL =

    work page doi:10.1257/aer.20181135 2020

  10. [10]

    2019, Journal of Open Source Software, 4, 1298, 10.21105/joss.01298

    Andrea Zonca and Leo P. Singer and Daniel Lenz and Martin Reinecke and Cyrille Rosset and Eric Hivon and Krzysztof M. Gorski , title =. 2019 , publisher =. doi:10.21105/joss.01298 , url =

    work page doi:10.21105/joss.01298 2019

  11. [11]

    Advances in Space Research , keywords =

    Propagation errors analysis of TLE data. Advances in Space Research , keywords =. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2008.11.017 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.asr.2008.11.017 2008

  12. [12]

    , keywords =

    Orbit error characteristic and distribution of TLE using CHAMP orbit data. , keywords =. doi:10.1007/s10509-018-3251-z , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1007/s10509-018-3251-z

  13. [13]

    Study on the Orbit Prediction Errors of Space Objects Based on Historical TLE Data , journal =

    XU Xiao-li and XIONG Yong-qing , keywords =. Study on the Orbit Prediction Errors of Space Objects Based on Historical TLE Data , journal =. 2019 , issn =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chinastron.2019.11.007 , url =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.chinastron.2019.11.007 2019

  14. [15]

    Ionospheric Power-Spectrum Tomography in Radio Interferometry

    Ionospheric Power-spectrum Tomography in Radio Interferometry. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/718/2/963 , archivePrefix =. 1005.1898 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1088/0004-637x/718/2/963

  15. [16]

    The Astrophysical Journal , author =

    A. The Astrophysical Journal , author =. 2019 , pages =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab0d8b , abstract =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab0d8b 2019

  16. [17]

    The Astrophysical Journal , author =

    Direction-dependent. The Astrophysical Journal , author =. 2024 , pages =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad6d68 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad6d68 2024

  17. [18]

    , keywords =

    Antenna beam characterization for the global 21-cm experiment LEDA and its impact on signal model parameter reconstruction. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1804 , archivePrefix =. 2206.12158 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1804

  18. [19]

    Experimental Astronomy , keywords =

    PRATUSH experiment concept and design overview. Experimental Astronomy , keywords =. doi:10.1007/s10686-023-09909-5 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1007/s10686-023-09909-5

  19. [20]

    The Astrophysical Journal , volume=

    HEALPix: A framework for high-resolution discretization and fast analysis of data distributed on the sphere , author=. The Astrophysical Journal , volume=. 2005 , publisher=

    work page 2005

  20. [21]

    Zeitschrift f

    On the histogram as a density estimator: L 2 theory , author=. Zeitschrift f. 1981 , publisher=

    work page 1981

  21. [22]

    Two-line element sets - Practice and use , volume =

    Vallado, David and Cefola, Paul , year =. Two-line element sets - Practice and use , volume =

    work page

  22. [23]

    Goward and Jeffrey G

    Samuel N. Goward and Jeffrey G. Masek and Darrel L. Williams and James R. Irons and R.J. Thompson , abstract =. The Landsat 7 mission: Terrestrial research and applications for the 21st century , journal =. 2001 , note =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(01)00262-0 , url =

    work page doi:10.1016/s0034-4257(01)00262-0 2001

  23. [24]

    Space Telescopes and Instrumentation 2014: Ultraviolet to Gamma Ray , volume=

    ASTROSAT mission , author=. Space Telescopes and Instrumentation 2014: Ultraviolet to Gamma Ray , volume=. 2014 , organization=

    work page 2014

  24. [25]

    AIAA/AAS Astrodynamics Specialist Conference and Exhibit , pages=

    SGP4 orbit determination , author=. AIAA/AAS Astrodynamics Specialist Conference and Exhibit , pages=

    work page

  25. [26]

    Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics , keywords =

    Energetic electron flux behavior at low L-shells and its relation to the South Atlantic Anomaly. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics , keywords =. doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2007.08.061 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2007.08.061 2007

  26. [27]

    , booktitle=

    Wang, Fan and Agrawal, Vishwani D. , booktitle=. Single Event Upset: An Embedded Tutorial , year=

    work page

  27. [28]

    Nonlinear Processes in Geophysics , year = 2019, month = mar, volume =

    Characterization of the South Atlantic Anomaly. Nonlinear Processes in Geophysics , year = 2019, month = mar, volume =. doi:10.5194/npg-26-25-2019 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.5194/npg-26-25-2019 2019

  28. [29]

    The future of the South Atlantic anomaly and implications for radiation damage in space , journal =

    J.R Heirtzler , keywords =. The future of the South Atlantic anomaly and implications for radiation damage in space , journal =. 2002 , note =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6826(02)00120-7 , url =

    work page doi:10.1016/s1364-6826(02)00120-7 2002

  29. [30]

    Optimal Data-Based Binning for Histograms

    Optimal data-based binning for histograms , author=. arXiv preprint physics/0605197 , year=

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv

  30. [31]

    GMOSS: All-sky model of spectral radio brightness based on physical components and associated radiative processes

    GMOSS: All-sky Model of Spectral Radio Brightness Based on Physical Components and Associated Radiative Processes. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/153/1/26 , archivePrefix =. 1607.07453 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.3847/1538-3881/153/1/26

  31. [32]

    The Astrophysical Journal , abstract =

    Mayuri Sathyanarayana Rao and Ravi Subrahmanyan and N Udaya Shankar and Jens Chluba , title =. The Astrophysical Journal , abstract =. 2017 , month =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa69bd , url =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa69bd 2017

  32. [33]

    Advances in Space Research , volume=

    The James webb space telescope (jwst) , author=. Advances in Space Research , volume=. 2008 , publisher=

    work page 2008

  33. [34]

    Libration Point Orbits and Applications , pages=

    Herschel, Planck and Gaia orbit design , author=. Libration Point Orbits and Applications , pages=. 2003 , publisher=

    work page 2003

  34. [35]

    , keywords =

    Absolving the SSINS of Precision Interferometric Radio Data: A New Technique for Mitigating Faint Radio Frequency Interference. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/1538-3873/ab3cad , archivePrefix =. 1906.01093 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/1538-3873/ab3cad 1906

  35. [36]

    The low-frequency environment of the Murchison Widefield Array: radio-frequency interference analysis and mitigation

    The Low-Frequency Environment of the Murchison Widefield Array: Radio-Frequency Interference Analysis and Mitigation. , keywords =. doi:10.1017/pasa.2015.7 , archivePrefix =. 1501.03946 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1017/pasa.2015.7 2015

  36. [37]

    21-cm cosmology

    21 cm cosmology in the 21st century. Reports on Progress in Physics , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/75/8/086901 , archivePrefix =. 1109.6012 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1088/0034-4885/75/8/086901

  37. [38]

    Charting the Parameter Space of the Global 21-cm Signal

    Charting the parameter space of the global 21-cm signal. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2065 , archivePrefix =. 1609.02312 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2065

  38. [39]

    QGIS Geographic Information System , author =

    work page

  39. [40]

    and Doye, Jonathan P

    Wales, David J. and Doye, Jonathan P. K. , Date-Added =. Global Optimization by Basin-Hopping and the Lowest Energy Structures of Lennard-Jones Clusters Containing up to 110 Atoms , Volume =. 1997 , Bdsk-Url-1 =. doi:10.1021/jp970984n , Journal =

    work page doi:10.1021/jp970984n 1997

  40. [41]

    and Haberland, Matt and Reddy, Tyler and Cournapeau, David and Burovski, Evgeni and Peterson, Pearu and Weckesser, Warren and Bright, Jonathan and

    Virtanen, Pauli and Gommers, Ralf and Oliphant, Travis E. and Haberland, Matt and Reddy, Tyler and Cournapeau, David and Burovski, Evgeni and Peterson, Pearu and Weckesser, Warren and Bright, Jonathan and. Nature Methods , year =

    work page

  41. [42]

    P. A. P. Moran , journal =. Notes on Continuous Stochastic Phenomena , urldate =

    work page

  42. [43]

    and Subrahmanyan, R

    Singh, S. and Subrahmanyan, R. and Shankar, N. U. and Sathyanarayana Rao, M. and Fialkov, A. and Cohen, A. Barkana, R. and Girish, B.S. and Raghunathan, A. and Somashekar, R. and Srivani, K.S. First R esults on the E poch of R eionization from F irst L ight with SARAS 2. The Astrophysical Journal. 2017. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa831b

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa831b 2017

  43. [44]

    and Subrahmanyan, R

    Singh, S. and Subrahmanyan, R. and Shankar, N. U. and Sathyanarayana Rao, M. and Girish, B.S. and Raghunathan, A. and Somashekar, R. and Srivani, K.S. SARAS 2 : a spectral radiometer for probing cosmic dawn and the epoch of reionization through detection of the global 21-cm signal. Experimental Astronomy. 2018. doi:10.1007/s10686-018-9584-3

    work page doi:10.1007/s10686-018-9584-3 2018

  44. [45]

    and Subrahmanyan, R

    Singh, S. and Subrahmanyan, R. and Shankar, N. U. and Sathyanarayana Rao, M. and Fialkov, A. and Cohen, A. Barkana, R. and Girish, B.S. and Raghunathan, A. and Somashekar, R. and Srivani, K.S. SARAS 2 C onstraints on G lobal 21 cm S ignals from the E poch of R eionization. The Astrophysical Journal. 2018. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aabae1

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aabae1 2018

  45. [46]

    and Nambissan, T

    Singh, S. and Nambissan, T. and Subrahmanyan, R. and Udaya Shankar, N. and Girish, B.S. and Raghunathan, A. and Somashekar, R. and Srivani, K. S. and Sathyanarayana Rao, M. On the detection of a cosmic dawn signal in the radio background. Nature Astronomy. 2022. doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01610-5

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01610-5 2022

  46. [47]

    and Rogers, A.E.E

    Bowman, J.D. and Rogers, A.E.E. and Monsalve, R.A. and Mozdzen, T.J. and Mahesh, N. An absorption profile centred at 78megahertz in the sky-averaged spectrum. Nature 555. 2018. doi:10.1038/nature25792

    work page doi:10.1038/nature25792 2018

  47. [48]

    and McQuinn, M

    Bernardi, G. and McQuinn, M. and Greenhill, L. J. F oreground model and antenna calibration errors of the sky-averaged 21 cm signal at z 20. The Astrophysical Journal. 2015. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/799/1/90

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/799/1/90 2015

  48. [49]

    Price, D. C. and Greenhill, L. J. and Fialkov, A. and et al. Design and characterization of the L arge- aperture E xperiment to D etect the D ark A ge (LEDA) radiometer systems. The Astrophysical Journal. 2018. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1244

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1244 2018

  49. [50]

    and Abdurashidova, Z

    Philip, L. and Abdurashidova, Z. and Chiang, H. C. and Ghazi, N. and et al. Journal of Astronomical Instrumentation. 2018. doi:10.1142/S2251171719500041

    work page doi:10.1142/s2251171719500041 2018

  50. [51]

    Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society , author =

    Chromatic effects in the 21 cm global signal from the cosmic dawn , volume =. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society , author =. 2014 , pages =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1878 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1878 2014

  51. [52]

    Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society , author =

    Quantifying ionospheric effects on global 21-cm observations , volume =. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society , author =. 2021 , pages =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stab429 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab429 2021

  52. [53]

    2016 , note =

    The Astrophysical Journal , author =. 2016 , note =. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/831/1/6 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-637x/831/1/6 2016

  53. [54]

    The Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP) Mission

    The Microwave Anisotropy Probe Mission. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/345346 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0301158 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1086/345346

  54. [55]

    The Planck mission , journal =

    J.A Tauber , keywords =. The Planck mission , journal =. 2004 , note =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2003.05.025 , url =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.asr.2003.05.025 2004

  55. [56]

    2003 , edition =

    Satellite Geodesy: Foundations, Methods, and Applications , author =. 2003 , edition =

    work page 2003

  56. [57]

    Radio Science , keywords =

    Microwave antenna temperature of the earth from geostationary orbit. Radio Science , keywords =. doi:10.1029/RS020i003p00591 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1029/rs020i003p00591

  57. [58]

    Essential Radio Astronomy

    work page

  58. [59]

    Nature Astronomy , keywords =

    The REACH radiometer for detecting the 21-cm hydrogen signal from redshift z 7.5-28. Nature Astronomy , keywords =. doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01709-9 , archivePrefix =. 2210.07409 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01709-9

  59. [60]

    American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts \#234 , year = 2019, series =

    Dark Cosmology: Investigating Dark Matter and Exotic Physics using the Redshifted 21-cm Global Signal with the Dark Ages Polarimeter Pathfinder (DAPPER). American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts \#234 , year = 2019, series =

    work page 2019

  60. [61]

    Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society , year = 2021, volume =

    FARSIDE: A Low Radio Frequency Interferometric Array on the Lunar Farside. Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society , year = 2021, volume =. doi:10.3847/25c2cfeb.60683360 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.3847/25c2cfeb.60683360 2021

  61. [62]

    and Lazio, J

    Burns, Jack O. and Lazio, J. and Bale, S. and Bowman, J. and Bradley, R. and Carilli, C. and Furlanetto, S. and Harker, G. and Loeb, A. and Pritchard, J. , year=. Probing the first stars and black holes in the early Universe with the Dark Ages Radio Explorer (DARE) , volume=. Advances in Space Research , publisher=. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2011.10.014 , number=

    work page doi:10.1016/j.asr.2011.10.014 2011

  62. [63]

    Discovering the sky at the longest wavelengths with a lunar orbit array , volume=

    Chen, Xuelei and Yan, Jingye and Deng, Li and Wu, Fengquan and Wu, Lin and Xu, Yidong and Zhou, Li , year=. Discovering the sky at the longest wavelengths with a lunar orbit array , volume=. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences , publisher=. doi:10.1098/rsta.2019.0566 , number=

    work page doi:10.1098/rsta.2019.0566 2019

  63. [64]

    Astronomy & Astrophysics , volume=

    Broadband polarized radio emission detected from Starlink satellites below 100 MHz with NenuFAR , author=. Astronomy & Astrophysics , volume=. 2025 , publisher=

    work page 2025

  64. [65]

    Astronomy & Astrophysics , volume=

    Unintended electromagnetic radiation from Starlink satellites detected with LOFAR between 110 and 188 MHz , author=. Astronomy & Astrophysics , volume=. 2023 , publisher=

    work page 2023

  65. [66]

    Astronomy & Astrophysics , volume=

    Bright unintended electromagnetic radiation from second-generation Starlink satellites , author=. Astronomy & Astrophysics , volume=. 2024 , publisher=

    work page 2024