High-Quality Ge-Doped (010) $\beta$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ Homoepitaxial Films Grown by Low-pressure CVD: Structural, Electrical, and Schottky Diode Characteristics

Ahmed Ibreljic; Anhar Bhuiyan; Saleh Ahmed Khan; Sourav Sarker; Stephen Lam; Stephen Margiotta

REVIEW 2 major objections 5 minor 1 cited by

High-Quality Ge-Doped (010) $\beta$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ Homoepitaxial Films Grown by Low-pressure CVD: Structural, Electrical, and Schottky Diode Characteristics

T0 review · 2 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-07-14 · grok-4.5

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Pith's one-line read LPCVD grows Ge-doped (010) β-Ga₂O₃ films with controllable n-type doping and working Schottky diodes.

desk verdict Solid LPCVD Ge-doping process paper: better mobility than prior LPCVD Ge, multi-probe film quality, and a working vertical SBD with Hall/C–V agreement; high-voltage framing is still prospective. read the letter →

arxiv 2607.10907 v1 pith:CIQMTOEA submitted 2026-07-12 cond-mat.mtrl-sci physics.app-ph

Ahmed Ibreljic , Saleh Ahmed Khan , Sourav Sarker , Stephen Margiotta , Stephen Lam , Anhar Bhuiyan This is my paper · ORCID

classification cond-mat.mtrl-sciphysics.app-ph

keywords β-Ga2O3LPCVDGedopingSchottkybarrierdiodehomoepitaxyHallmobilityultra-widebandgap

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper shows that low-pressure chemical vapor deposition can put germanium into (010) β-Ga₂O₃ layers grown on native substrates and turn that germanium into free electrons at useful concentrations. Room-temperature carrier densities span 7.4×10¹⁷ to 2.57×10¹⁸ cm⁻³ with mobilities of 105–62 cm²/V·s, while XRD, Raman and XPS confirm the films stay phase-pure, near-stoichiometric and only modestly rougher as doping rises. Temperature-dependent Hall data fit a dominant shallow donor at 14 meV, and vertical Ni Schottky diodes made on a 2.54 µm Ge-doped drift layer show rectifying behavior with turn-on 0.74 V, ideality factor 1.32, barrier height ~1.0–1.1 eV and specific on-resistance 2.49 mΩ·cm². The authors argue that LPCVD therefore supplies both doping control and device-grade material for high-voltage β-Ga₂O₃ power electronics.

What carries the argument

Self-consistent charge-neutrality plus multi-scattering transport modeling of temperature-dependent Hall data, which isolates a dominant 14 meV shallow donor (assigned to substitutional Ge) and quantifies residual line-defect and acceptor densities.

What would settle it

Secondary-ion mass spectrometry (or equivalent) depth profiles showing Ge atomic density that does not track the Hall and C–V donor densities across the reported doping series would falsify the claim that Ge is the electrically active dopant.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

LPCVD of Ge-doped (010) β-Ga₂O₃ on native substrates yields controllable n-type doping (7.4×10¹⁷–2.57×10¹⁸ cm⁻³, µ = 105–62 cm²/V·s), a dominant shallow donor of 14 meV, and vertical Ni Schottky diodes whose Hall, C–V and I–V parameters agree, establishing the layers as a platform for high-voltage power devices.

Load-bearing premise

That the free electrons and the fitted 14 meV donor come mainly from the intentionally added germanium rather than residual silicon or other impurities, even though no absolute Ge concentration profile is measured.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

LPCVD can supply Ge-doped drift layers for vertical β-Ga₂O₃ Schottky and power transistors without metal-organic or chloride precursors.
The 14 meV donor level implies near-complete room-temperature ionization, so doping set-points can be used directly for on-resistance and breakdown design.
Further reduction of growth-related line-defect density should raise low-temperature mobility above the observed 234 cm²/V·s peak.
Extension of the same LPCVD process toward lower 10¹⁵–10¹⁶ cm⁻³ doping would open high-voltage drift layers for multi-kV devices.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

Because earlier LPCVD Ge reports showed substantially lower mobilities, the present growth geometry (source spacing, 1100 °C, ~1.5 Torr) is likely the practical lever that recovered device-grade transport.
If residual Si is ruled out by SIMS, Ge becomes a competitive alternative to Si for LPCVD doping windows where Si incorporation is hard to throttle.
The modest FWHM and roughness rise with doping suggests Ge lattice strain remains tolerable up to at least mid-10¹⁸ cm⁻³, so thicker multi-micron drifts should remain structurally viable.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

This is a clean experimental materials paper. What is new is not Ge doping itself—MBE, MOCVD, and earlier LPCVD already did that—but LPCVD Ge on (010) with room-temperature mobility of 62–105 cm²/V·s (vs the 20–43 they cite for prior LPCVD Ge), a full structural/chemical suite, temperature-dependent transport fitting that pulls a dominant 14 meV donor, and a vertical Ni SBD on that drift layer with Hall and C–V doping in agreement.

They do the work carefully. Surfaces are smooth (RMS ~3–4 nm) with the usual [001] striations. XRD shows only (020), rocking FWHM 97–124 arcsec that only modestly widens with doping. Raman has the full Ag set; XPS O/Ga ≈ 1.51. Hall n = 7.4×10¹⁷–2.57×10¹⁸ cm⁻³, peak μ = 234 at 116 K. The charge-neutrality + Matthiessen fit (Table 1: ND1 = 1.2×10¹⁸, ED1 = 14 meV, low NA, Nline) is standard parameter extraction, not circular. The diode is honest: Von = 0.74 V, η = 1.32, φB,IV = 1.02 eV / φB,CV = 1.13 eV, Ron,sp = 2.49 mΩ·cm², ND,CV = 7.7×10¹⁷ matching Hall. Citations cover the right prior Ge and LPCVD work.

Soft spots, in proportion: no SIMS or absolute [Ge] correlated to Hall n, so the “Ge donors” assignment rests on intentional Ge source + literature shallow-donor precedent. That is a real caveat, not a load-bearing hole—the central claim is controllable n-type films of good quality under the stated LPCVD conditions, and that package holds. Doping is still mid-10¹⁷ for a “high-voltage platform,” and there is no breakdown data; that framing is prospective, which they mostly acknowledge in the conclusion. Transport parameters are fits; free parameters are the usual ones.

Who it is for: people growing or doping β-Ga₂O₃ by LPCVD/CVD who need a process benchmark and diode-level check. Math and metrology look solid. I would send it to peer review; it is the kind of growth-and-device note that belongs in the literature with the usual requests for chemical profiling and clearer HV caveats.

Referee Report

2 major / 5 minor

Summary. This manuscript reports LPCVD homoepitaxy of Ge-doped (010) β-Ga₂O₃ on native substrates, achieving room-temperature carrier concentrations of 7.4×10¹⁷–2.57×10¹⁸ cm⁻³ with Hall mobilities of 105–62 cm²/V·s. Multi-probe structural characterization (SEM/AFM RMS 2.94–3.97 nm, XRD (020) rocking FWHM 97–124 arcsec, full Ag Raman set, XPS O/Ga ≈ 1.51) supports phase-pure, near-stoichiometric films of good crystalline quality. Temperature-dependent Hall data on the lightest-doped film, fitted with a charge-neutrality and multi-scattering transport model (Eqs. 1–2, Table 1), yield a dominant shallow donor (ED1 = 14 meV, ND1 = 1.20×10¹⁸ cm⁻³), low compensation, and a peak mobility of 234 cm²/V·s at 116 K. Vertical Ni/β-Ga₂O₃ Schottky diodes on a ~2.54 µm Ge-doped drift layer show rectifying J–V behavior (η = 1.32, φB,IV = 1.02 eV, Ron,sp = 2.49 mΩ·cm²) and C–V ND = 7.7×10¹⁷ cm⁻³ with φB,CV = 1.13 eV, in agreement with Hall. The central claim is that LPCVD with a metallic Ge source enables controllable n-type doping while preserving device-grade structural and electronic quality.

Significance. If the results hold, the work strengthens LPCVD as a practical route for Ge-doped β-Ga₂O₃ homoepitaxy, with room-temperature mobilities clearly improved relative to earlier LPCVD Ge reports cited in the introduction and with Hall/C–V consistency plus working vertical SBDs that demonstrate electronic quality. The multi-technique structural package and the self-consistent transport fit (Table 1) are concrete strengths. High-voltage readiness remains prospective—doping is still high for thick HV drifts and no breakdown data are shown—but the manuscript positions the platform appropriately for future power-device development rather than claiming a finished HV device.

major comments (2)

§III / Table 1 and the abstract claim of “efficient electrical activation of Ge donors” rest on intentional Ge-source growth plus literature precedent for shallow Ge donors, without SIMS or other absolute [Ge] profiles correlated to Hall n. Residual Si or other impurities cannot be rigorously excluded. This does not overturn the demonstrated n-type controllability or diode quality under the stated growth conditions, but a short, explicit caveat (or any available chemical evidence) should be added so the donor assignment is not overstated.
The abstract and conclusion frame the films as a platform for future high-voltage devices, yet the demonstrated doping (mid-10¹⁷ to low-10¹⁸ cm⁻³) and the absence of reverse-breakdown or high-voltage data leave that claim prospective. A brief, quantitative note on the doping range still needed for HV drift layers (and that lower doping is future work) would keep the device-level claim proportionate to the data.

minor comments (5)

Throughout the manuscript and abstract, carrier-concentration exponents appear as corrupted placeholders (e.g., 7.4×10!" , 2.57×10!#). These must be restored to proper scientific notation before publication.
Figure 2 caption refers to panel (c) (FWHM vs carrier concentration), but the figure description in the text should be checked for consistent panel labeling and axis units.
Eq. (5) barrier correction and the Richardson constant A* = 41.04 A cm⁻² K⁻² are standard; a one-line statement of the effective mass used for A* and NC would aid reproducibility.
Growth details (Ga–Ge spacing 33 cm, Ga–substrate 4.5 cm, 1.5 Torr, 1100 °C) are useful; if growth rate vs Ge source condition is known, a brief note would strengthen the “controllable doping” claim.
References include several arXiv preprints and in-press items; ensure final citations are updated and that prior LPCVD Ge work (e.g., Ranga et al.) is compared quantitatively on mobility at similar n.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: experimental growth, multi-technique characterization, standard Hall transport fitting, and diode extraction; no prediction forced by construction.

full rationale

The paper is an experimental materials/device report. Controllable Ge doping, structural quality (SEM/AFM RMS, XRD FWHM, Raman Ag modes, XPS O/Ga), Hall n and μ (including T-dependent peak μ = 234 cm²/V·s), and vertical Ni SBD metrics (J–V η, φB, Ron,sp; C–V ND and φB) are measured quantities, not rearrangements of inputs. Charge-neutrality + Matthiessen transport modeling (Eqs. 1–2, Table 1) fits ND1/ED1, ND2/ED2, Nline, NA to the measured Hall curves—standard parameter extraction, not a claimed first-principles prediction of those values. Schottky analysis uses textbook thermionic emission and 1/C²–V formulas with literature A* and NC; φB,IV and φB,CV are extracted, not predicted from each other by construction. Self-citations to the group’s prior LPCVD Si/Sn work and literature Ge-doping papers provide context and comparison; they do not force the present Hall, XRD, or diode numbers. The Ge-assignment caveat (no SIMS [Ge] vs Hall n) is a materials-identification limitation, not circular reasoning. Score 0.

Assumptions & free parameters 6 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

Experimental materials paper. Load-bearing content is measured film/device properties. Modeling of Hall data introduces several fitted donor/defect densities and energies; diode analysis uses standard semiconductor constants from literature. No new physical entities are required for the central growth claim; the shallow-Ge interpretation depends on assigning the fitted ED1 to Ge without absolute Ge assay.

free parameters (6)

ND1 (shallow donor density) = 1.20e18 cm^-3
Fitted in charge-neutrality model to temperature-dependent Hall n(T); Table 1.
ED1 (shallow donor activation energy) = 14 meV
Fitted activation energy of dominant donor; used to claim efficient Ge activation (14 meV).
ND2, ED2 (second donor) = 5e16 cm^-3, 100 meV
Secondary donor population fitted to capture freeze-out shape; Table 1.
Nline (charged line-defect density) = 5.05e8 cm^-2
Effective extended-defect scattering density fitted via Matthiessen mobility model to low-T mobility.
NA (compensating acceptor density) = 1e15 cm^-3
Fitted compensation level in charge-neutrality equation; Table 1.
A* (Richardson constant) and NC = A*=41.04; NC=5.2e18 cm^-3
Taken as 41.04 A cm^-2 K^-2 and NC=5.2e18 cm^-3 for barrier extraction; literature-derived inputs that set φB numbers.

assumptions (5)

domain assumption Thermionic emission model for forward J–V of Ni/β-Ga₂O₃ Schottky contacts, with Wagner-style correction when η≠1.
Used in §III to extract η=1.32 and φB,IV=1.02 eV (Eqs. 3–5).
domain assumption Charge-neutrality with two discrete donors plus compensating acceptors and charged line defects describes n(T).
Eq. (1) and transport model following Neal et al.; fits Table 1 parameters.
domain assumption Matthiessen’s rule decomposes mobility into POP, II, NI, ADP, and line-defect channels.
Eq. (2); standard but approximate for anisotropic β-Ga₂O₃.
domain assumption Relative permittivity εr=10 and standard C–V abrupt-junction formulas yield ND–NA and φB,CV.
Eqs. (6)–(8) in diode section.
domain assumption Ge preferentially occupies Ga(I) sites as a shallow donor (literature first-principles/experiment).
Introduction motivation; used to interpret ED1=14 meV as Ge without in-paper site spectroscopy.

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Pith. "Pith review of High-Quality Ge-Doped (010) $\beta$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ Homoepitaxial Films Grown by Low-pressure CVD: Structural, Electrical, and Schottky Diode Characteristics." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/CIQMTOEA

@misc{pith2026260710907,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: High-Quality Ge-Doped (010) $\beta$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ Homoepitaxial Films Grown by Low-pressure CVD: Structural, Electrical, and Schottky Diode Characteristics},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/CIQMTOEA}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2607.10907}
}

abstract

In this work, Ge-doped $\beta$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ homoepitaxial films were grown on native (010) $\beta$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ substrates using low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD). Controlled $n$-type doping was achieved with room-temperature carrier concentrations ranging from $7.4\times10^{17}$ to $2.57\times10^{18}\ \mathrm{cm}^{-3}$ and corresponding electron mobilities of 105-62 cm$^2$/V$\cdot$s. The films exhibited smooth surface morphology with RMS roughness values of 2.94-3.97 nm, while X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirmed phase-pure $\beta$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ with excellent crystalline quality and near-stoichiometric composition. Temperature-dependent Hall measurements on the film with a room-temperature carrier concentration of $7.4\times10^{17}\ \mathrm{cm}^{-3}$ and mobility of 105 cm$^2$/V$\cdot$s yielded a peak electron mobility of 234 cm$^2$/V$\cdot$s at 116 K, while charge-neutrality and transport modeling revealed a dominant shallow donor level with an activation energy of 14 meV, confirming efficient electrical activation of Ge donors. Vertical Ni/$\beta$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ Schottky barrier diodes fabricated using the Ge-doped drift layer exhibited good rectifying behavior with a turn-on voltage of 0.74 V, an ideality factor of 1.32, a Schottky barrier height of 1.02 eV, and a specific on-resistance of 2.49 m$\Omega\cdot$cm$^2$. Capacitance-voltage measurements yielded a net donor concentration of $7.7\times10^{17}\ \mathrm{cm}^{-3}$ and a Schottky barrier height of 1.13 eV, in good agreement with Hall and current-voltage measurements. These results demonstrate that LPCVD enables controllable Ge doping while maintaining high structural and electronic quality, establishing LPCVD-grown Ge-doped $\beta$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ as a promising platform for future high-voltage power electronic devices.

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Forward citations

Cited by 1 Pith paper

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score. Full citation record

Sn-Doping in LPCVD-Grown (010) $\beta$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ Films
cond-mat.mtrl-sci 2026-08 conditional novelty 6.0 of 10

LPCVD-grown tin-doped (010) beta-Ga2O3 films show record electron mobility for this growth method while keeping high growth rates and good crystal quality.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

6 extracted references · 5 canonical work pages · cited by 1 Pith paper

[1]

cm$%, which is in excellent agreement with the room-temperature Hall carrier concentration of 7.4×10!

The depth-dependent carrier concentration profile extracted from the C-V data is shown in Fig. 6(d). The average net donor concentration was determined to be 7.7×10!" cm$%, which is in excellent agreement with the room-temperature Hall carrier concentration of 7.4×10!" cm$%. Furthermore, the carrier concentration remains uniform over the depletion region....

arXiv doi:10.1063/1.3674287 2012
[2]

(16) Khan, S

DOI: 10.1021/acsaenm.6c00439. (16) Khan, S. A.; Ibreljic, A.; Bhuiyan, A. Vertical β-Ga2O3 Schottky diodes with LPCVD-grown Sn-doped drift layer. APL Electron. Devices 2026, 2 (2), 026112. DOI: 10.1063/5.0319027. (17) Bhuiyan, A.; Meng, L.; Yu, D. S.; Dhara, S.; Huang, H.-L.; Vangipuram, V . G. T.; Hwang, J.; Rajan, S.; Zhao, H. Electrical and structural ...

work page doi:10.1021/acsaenm.6c00439 2026
[3]

A.; Saha, S.; Singisetti, U.; Bhuiyan, A

(44) Khan, S. A.; Saha, S.; Singisetti, U.; Bhuiyan, A. Radiation resilience of β-Ga2O3 Schottky barrier diodes under high dose gamma radiation. J. Appl. Phys. 2024, 136 (22), 225701. DOI: 10.1063/5.0233995. 18 (45) Alema, F.; Seryogin, G.; Osinsky, A.; Osinsky, A. Ge doping of β-Ga2O3 by MOCVD. APL Mater. 2021, 9 (9), 091102. DOI: 10.1063/5.0059657. (46)...

work page doi:10.1063/5.0233995 2024
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G.; Shimamura, K.; Yoshikawa, Y .; Ujiie, T.; Aoki, K

(47) Víllora, E. G.; Shimamura, K.; Yoshikawa, Y .; Ujiie, T.; Aoki, K. Electrical conductivity and carrier concentration control in β-Ga2O3 by Si doping. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2008, 92 (20), 202120. DOI: 10.1063/1.2919728. (48) Rafique, S.; Karim, M. R.; Johnson, J. M.; Hwang, J.; Zhao, H. LPCVD homoepitaxy of Si doped β-Ga2O3 thin films on (010) and (001) s...

work page doi:10.1063/1.2919728 2008
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Mist-chemical vapor deposition grown Ge-doped α-Ga2O3 thin films with high electron mobility

(61) Wakamatsu, T.; Izumi, H.; Tanake, H.; Isobe, Y .; Kaneko, K.; Tanaka, K. Mist-chemical vapor deposition grown Ge-doped α-Ga2O3 thin films with high electron mobility. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2026, 128 (1), 012105. DOI: 10.1063/5.0308320. 19 (62) Takane, H.; Izumi, H.; Hojo, H.; Wakamatsu, T.; Tanaka, K.; Kaneko, K. Effect of dislocations and impurities on ...

work page doi:10.1063/5.0308320 2026
[6]

K.; Cheung, N

(65) Cheung, S. K.; Cheung, N. W. Extraction of Schottky diode parameters from forward current‐voltage characteristics. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1986, 49 (2), 85-87. DOI: 10.1063/1.97359. (66) Wagner, L.; Young, R.; Sugerman, A. A note on the correlation between the Schottky-diode barrier height and the ideality factor as determined from IV measurements. IEEE El...

work page doi:10.1063/1.97359 1986

Pith tools

Reviewed July 14, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.

[1] [1]

cm$%, which is in excellent agreement with the room-temperature Hall carrier concentration of 7.4×10!

The depth-dependent carrier concentration profile extracted from the C-V data is shown in Fig. 6(d). The average net donor concentration was determined to be 7.7×10!" cm$%, which is in excellent agreement with the room-temperature Hall carrier concentration of 7.4×10!" cm$%. Furthermore, the carrier concentration remains uniform over the depletion region....

arXiv doi:10.1063/1.3674287 2012

[2] [2]

(16) Khan, S

DOI: 10.1021/acsaenm.6c00439. (16) Khan, S. A.; Ibreljic, A.; Bhuiyan, A. Vertical β-Ga2O3 Schottky diodes with LPCVD-grown Sn-doped drift layer. APL Electron. Devices 2026, 2 (2), 026112. DOI: 10.1063/5.0319027. (17) Bhuiyan, A.; Meng, L.; Yu, D. S.; Dhara, S.; Huang, H.-L.; Vangipuram, V . G. T.; Hwang, J.; Rajan, S.; Zhao, H. Electrical and structural ...

work page doi:10.1021/acsaenm.6c00439 2026

[3] [3]

A.; Saha, S.; Singisetti, U.; Bhuiyan, A

(44) Khan, S. A.; Saha, S.; Singisetti, U.; Bhuiyan, A. Radiation resilience of β-Ga2O3 Schottky barrier diodes under high dose gamma radiation. J. Appl. Phys. 2024, 136 (22), 225701. DOI: 10.1063/5.0233995. 18 (45) Alema, F.; Seryogin, G.; Osinsky, A.; Osinsky, A. Ge doping of β-Ga2O3 by MOCVD. APL Mater. 2021, 9 (9), 091102. DOI: 10.1063/5.0059657. (46)...

work page doi:10.1063/5.0233995 2024

[4] [4]

G.; Shimamura, K.; Yoshikawa, Y .; Ujiie, T.; Aoki, K

(47) Víllora, E. G.; Shimamura, K.; Yoshikawa, Y .; Ujiie, T.; Aoki, K. Electrical conductivity and carrier concentration control in β-Ga2O3 by Si doping. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2008, 92 (20), 202120. DOI: 10.1063/1.2919728. (48) Rafique, S.; Karim, M. R.; Johnson, J. M.; Hwang, J.; Zhao, H. LPCVD homoepitaxy of Si doped β-Ga2O3 thin films on (010) and (001) s...

work page doi:10.1063/1.2919728 2008

[5] [5]

Mist-chemical vapor deposition grown Ge-doped α-Ga2O3 thin films with high electron mobility

(61) Wakamatsu, T.; Izumi, H.; Tanake, H.; Isobe, Y .; Kaneko, K.; Tanaka, K. Mist-chemical vapor deposition grown Ge-doped α-Ga2O3 thin films with high electron mobility. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2026, 128 (1), 012105. DOI: 10.1063/5.0308320. 19 (62) Takane, H.; Izumi, H.; Hojo, H.; Wakamatsu, T.; Tanaka, K.; Kaneko, K. Effect of dislocations and impurities on ...

work page doi:10.1063/5.0308320 2026

[6] [6]

K.; Cheung, N

(65) Cheung, S. K.; Cheung, N. W. Extraction of Schottky diode parameters from forward current‐voltage characteristics. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1986, 49 (2), 85-87. DOI: 10.1063/1.97359. (66) Wagner, L.; Young, R.; Sugerman, A. A note on the correlation between the Schottky-diode barrier height and the ideality factor as determined from IV measurements. IEEE El...

work page doi:10.1063/1.97359 1986