FLIPS identifies LLM instances with 96% closed-set and 90% open-set accuracy by exploiting biases in generated binary random sequences across 237 instances.
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OR- Bench: An over-refusal benchmark for large language models
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abstract
Large Language Models (LLMs) require careful safety alignment to prevent malicious outputs. While significant research focuses on mitigating harmful content generation, the enhanced safety often come with the side effect of over-refusal, where LLMs may reject innocuous prompts and become less helpful. Although the issue of over-refusal has been empirically observed, a systematic measurement is challenging due to the difficulty of crafting prompts that can elicit the over-refusal behaviors of LLMs. This study proposes a novel method for automatically generating large-scale over-refusal datasets. Leveraging this technique, we introduce OR-Bench, the first large-scale over-refusal benchmark. OR-Bench comprises 80,000 over-refusal prompts across 10 common rejection categories, a subset of around 1,000 hard prompts that are challenging even for state-of-the-art LLMs, and an additional 600 toxic prompts to prevent indiscriminate responses. We then conduct a comprehensive study to measure the over-refusal of 32 popular LLMs across 8 model families. Our datasets are publicly available at https://huggingface.co/bench-llms and our codebase is open-sourced at https://github.com/justincui03/or-bench. We hope this benchmark can help the community develop better safety aligned models.
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representative citing papers
Current benchmarks overlook abstention competence in agents due to compliance bias; a new three-gap taxonomy and metrics (Safety Rate, Usability Rate, Informed Refusal Rate) demonstrate tunable safety-usability tradeoffs in preliminary tests across five model families.
RefusalBench shows strict refusal rates fail to rank frontier LLMs correctly on biological safety, with provider effects and partial-compliance patterns that binary metrics miss.
This paper delivers the first systematic taxonomy and cross-benchmark consistency analysis of 40 agent safety benchmarks, finding broad but shallow risk coverage, no ranking concordance across evaluations, and that benchmark choice systematically alters reported safety.
OpenSafeIntent benchmark shows models fail to calibrate safety across intent shifts in matched dual-use prompts, indicating current evaluations are insufficient.
EquiMem calibrates shared memory in multi-agent debate by computing a game-theoretic equilibrium from agent queries and paths, outperforming heuristics and LLM validators across benchmarks while remaining robust to adversarial agents.
LPA uses fewer than 100 personality trait statements to train LLMs for harmlessness, matching the robustness of methods using 150k+ harmful examples while generalizing better to new attacks.
Refute-or-Promote applies adversarial multi-agent review with kill gates and empirical verification to filter LLM defect candidates, killing 79-83% before disclosure and yielding 4 CVEs plus multiple accepted fixes across libraries, C++ standard, and compilers.
RACC defines six representation-aware coverage criteria that score jailbreak test suites by measuring activation of safety concepts extracted from LLM hidden states on a calibration set.
A causal audit via neuron-row zeroing shows attribution methods (LRP, IG) faithfully identify dispensable neurons and can install refusal behavior, while rank-stability proxies systematically miss selector failures.
SEAR trains one LLM via adversarial process rewards to explore harmful reasoning paths but flip to safe outputs, reducing over-refusal while preserving safety.
Schützen is a German-Bulgarian LLM safety dataset showing pronounced cross-language differences in model safety behavior.
PsychoSafe is a psychologically-informed refusal framework that improves LLM refusal quality by 28.1% via prompting and fine-tuning on an 8019-pair corpus across five risk domains, with strong in-domain but limited out-of-domain results.
CHASE uses co-evolutionary RL with GRPO to harden LLMs against black-box prompt-rewriting attacks, cutting mean StrongREJECT scores by 43.2% on held-out families while keeping zero false refusals on benign prompts.
Introduces GuardZoo benchmark and RouteGuard router-expert system showing monolithic guardrails suffer task interference while specialized routing improves threat detection and generalization.
Ellipsoid Control is a white-list test-time jailbreak defense that fits an anisotropic ellipsoid from benign activations to constrain projected gradient descent updates, aiming to improve the safety-utility tradeoff over black-list RepE methods.
PIA achieves lower attack success rates on persona-based jailbreaks via self-play co-evolution of attacks (PLE) and defenses (PICL) that structurally decouples safety from persona context using unilateral KL-divergence.
Language models refuse 75.4% of requests to evade defeated rules and do so even after recognizing reasons that undermine the rule's legitimacy.
FRPO applies a max-min robust optimization over KL-bounded policy neighborhoods during RLHF to reduce catastrophic forgetting of safety and accuracy under subsequent SFT or RL fine-tuning.
ORFuzz presents the first evolutionary testing framework for LLM over-refusal together with a new benchmark of 1,855 cases that triggers over-refusal at 63.56% average across ten models.
A comparative statistical framework is proposed to audit proprietary alignment in black-box LLMs by quantifying behavioral divergences from reference models rather than absolute correctness.
SafeMoE isolates unsafe knowledge in domain-specific LoRA experts and routes them via a lightweight gate trained on safe responses to produce safer and more informative LLM outputs with zero-shot generalization.
Palette identifies refusal directions via multi-objective search, internalizes them through lightweight adaptation, and supports on-demand multi-domain authorization via independent learning and parameter merging.
ReGA uses safety-critical representations to guide abstraction in model-based analysis, enabling scalable detection of harmful LLM inputs with reported AUROC of 0.975 at prompt level.
citing papers explorer
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RefusalBench: Why Refusal Rate Misranks Frontier LLMs on Biological Research Prompts
RefusalBench shows strict refusal rates fail to rank frontier LLMs correctly on biological safety, with provider effects and partial-compliance patterns that binary metrics miss.
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RACC: Representation-Aware Coverage Criteria for LLM Safety Testing
RACC defines six representation-aware coverage criteria that score jailbreak test suites by measuring activation of safety concepts extracted from LLM hidden states on a calibration set.
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ORFuzz: Fuzzing the "Other Side" of LLM Safety -- Testing Over-Refusal
ORFuzz presents the first evolutionary testing framework for LLM over-refusal together with a new benchmark of 1,855 cases that triggers over-refusal at 63.56% average across ten models.