Low-Energy Radiative Backgrounds in CCD-Based Dark-Matter Detectors

The reach of sub-GeV dark-matter detectors is at present severely affected by low-energy events from various origins. We present the theoretical methods to compute the single- and few-electron events that arise from secondary radiation emitted by high-energy particles passing through detector materials and perform simulations to quantify them at (Skipper) CCD-based experiments, focusing on the SENSEI data collected in the MINOS cavern at Fermilab. The simulations account for the generation of secondaries from Cherenkov and luminescent recombination; photo-absorption, reflection, refraction and thin-film interference in detector materials; roughness of the interfaces and the dynamics of charges and partial charge collection (PCC) in the doped CCD-backside. We consider several systematic uncertainties, notably those stemming from the backside charge-diffusion modeling, which we estimate with a "fiducial'' and an "extreme'' model, with the former model presenting better agreement with PCC data. We find that Cherenkov photons constitute about 40% of the observed single-electron events for both models; radiative recombination rates are negligible for the fiducial model, but can dominate over the Cherenkov rates for the extreme model. We also estimate the fraction of 2-electron events from 1-electron event same-pixel coincidences, finding that the entire 2-electron rate can be explained by coincidences of radiative events and spurious charge. Accounting for backgrounds, we project the sensitivity of future Skipper-CCD-based experiments to different dark-matter models. For light-mediator models with dark-matter masses of 1, 5, and 10 MeV, we find that future experiments with 10-kg-year exposures and successful background mitigation could have a sensitivity that is larger by 9, 3, and 2 orders of magnitude, respectively, when compared to an experiment without background improvements. (abridged)