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arxiv: 2508.16005 · v3 · submitted 2025-08-21 · ⚛️ physics.ins-det

Demonstrating a broadband Photon Detection Efficiency model on VUV sensitive Silicon Photomultipliers

Austin de St Croix , Harry Lewis , Kurtis Raymond , Fabrice Reti\`ere , Maia Henriksson-Ward , Giacomo Gallina , Nicholas Morrison , Aileen Zhang This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-18 21:30 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.ins-det
keywords Photon Detection EfficiencySilicon PhotomultiplierVUV sensitivityLiquid noble gasesAnalytic modelCryogenic operationExtrapolation
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The pith

An analytic model factors SiPM photon detection efficiency into transmission and internal response to predict performance in liquid xenon and argon.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper develops a versatile analytic model for the photon detection efficiency of P-on-N silicon photomultipliers that depends on wavelength, incidence angle, voltage, and temperature. By separating overall efficiency into a transmission component and an internal efficiency component, the model supports predictions when the devices operate in dense media such as liquid noble gases. Absolute PDE data collected from 350 to 830 nm at 163 K on two commercial VUV-sensitive sensors were used to fit the model parameters. The same fitted model then extrapolates efficiency to additional wavelengths and to operation inside liquid xenon and argon, providing estimates useful for large-scale detectors. The approach also supports design optimization for applications in astroparticle physics and quantum computing.

Core claim

The authors present an analytic model that expresses PDE as the product of wavelength- and angle-dependent transmission through the sensor surface and an internal efficiency that depends on voltage and temperature. Device-specific parameters allow the model to be fitted to limited laboratory data and then used to forecast absolute efficiency at new wavelengths or when the sensor is immersed in liquid xenon or argon without new measurements.

What carries the argument

The PDE model obtained by factoring total efficiency into independent transmission and internal efficiency components, using device-specific parameters for wavelength, angle, voltage, and temperature.

If this is right

  • Absolute PDE in liquid xenon and liquid argon can be estimated from room-temperature or limited cryogenic data.
  • The contribution of external cross-talk to total noise in large detectors can be evaluated using the extrapolated PDE values.
  • Sensor design parameters can be varied within the model to optimize efficiency for specific wavelength bands or operating media.
  • PDE at wavelengths outside the measured 350-830 nm interval can be predicted once the model is fitted to a subset of data.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same factoring approach may apply to other photodetector families if their surface coatings and internal gain mechanisms can be parameterized separately.
  • Combining the model with Monte Carlo simulations of photon transport in liquid nobles could reduce the need for full cryogenic calibration campaigns.
  • The framework offers a route to compare competing SiPM technologies on equal footing when only partial characterization data exist.

Load-bearing premise

The transmission and internal efficiency factors remain independent and unchanged when the sensor is placed in dense media such as liquid xenon or argon.

What would settle it

A direct absolute PDE measurement of one of the tested SiPMs immersed in liquid xenon at a wavelength inside the fitted range that differs by more than the stated uncertainty from the model's prediction.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2508.16005 by Aileen Zhang, Austin de St Croix, Fabrice Reti\`ere, Giacomo Gallina, Harry Lewis, Kurtis Raymond, Maia Henriksson-Ward, Nicholas Morrison.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: (Left) Diagram of the modeled SiPM structure, with illustration of the respective minority carriers drifting [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: The input optical data used in this work. (Main figure) solid and dashed lines represent [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Vacuum transmission for the vacuum-quartz-silicon thin film interface used in the PDE model. The [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Absorption probability vs wavelength for the electron collection region [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: The HPK PDE for selected overvoltages is shown, with 3 fits overlayed. All fits perform similarly well wrt [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Comparison of the HPK reported PDE (warm), measured PDE (cold) and the model. Increasing the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: The second and third campaigns extend to -10 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Upper plot showing F F(θ)/F F(0◦ ), derived from relative PDE data corrected for transmission. Inset shows only the UV data fit with the shadowing Equation 14 to find the effective resistor height. The lower plot shows the offset in F F wrt unity about 25deg (dark vertical line), versus wavelength. Some experimental data omitted from upper figure for clarity. 16 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Three measurements of FBK device’s relative PDE versus angle, fit to extract the oxide thickness. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p017_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: FBK data and the global, parameterized fit result using the default input dataset. Other fits not shown [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p018_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Comparison of avalanche probabilities. Upper curves are [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p020_10.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We present a versatile analytic model describing Photon Detection Efficiency (PDE) for P-on-N silicon photomultipliers, with possible applications for device characterization, PDE extrapolation from limited data, simulation and design optimization. Using device specific parameters, SiPM PDE is modeled as a function of wavelength, angle of incidence, voltage, and limited temperature range. By factoring the PDE into transmission and internal efficiency, the performance in liquid nobles and other dense media can be predicted. We present the measurement of the absolute PDE from 350 to 830 nm at 163 K for two VUV sensitive SiPMs: a Hamamatsu VUV4 and Fondazione Bruno Kessler VUV-HD Technology. Additional measurements of relative PDE versus angle are also included. We successfully fit the model to the data, compare with literature and show the model's predictive power by extrapolating PDE to new wavelengths and operation in liquid xenon and argon, which is useful for estimating performance and the impact of external cross-talk in future large-scale experiments. Lastly we use the model to investigate optimizing efficiency for specific applications in astroparticle physics and quantum computing.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents a broadband analytic model for the photon detection efficiency (PDE) of VUV-sensitive silicon photomultipliers. PDE is factored into a medium-dependent transmission term and a device-specific internal efficiency term assumed independent of the surrounding medium. Absolute PDE data from 350–830 nm at 163 K are reported for a Hamamatsu VUV4 and an FBK VUV-HD device, together with relative angular measurements. The model is fitted to these air/vacuum data and then used to extrapolate PDE to VUV wavelengths and to operation in liquid xenon and argon.

Significance. If the separation into transmission and internal efficiency remains valid across media, the model offers a practical route to predict SiPM performance in noble-liquid detectors from limited air data. This would be useful for estimating external cross-talk and optimizing efficiency in future large-scale astroparticle experiments. The analytic form and explicit use of device parameters for extrapolation constitute a clear methodological contribution.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract, paragraph on factoring PDE: The central claim that PDE = T(medium, λ, θ) × η_internal(V, T) with η_internal invariant under immersion in liquid Xe or Ar is load-bearing for all extrapolations. All reported measurements were performed at 163 K in air or vacuum; no in-liquid absolute PDE data for the same devices are shown, so medium-dependent surface effects would go undetected by the air-only fit.
  2. [§5] §5 (Extrapolation and liquid predictions): The quantitative predictions for liquid xenon and argon are presented without reported residuals, parameter uncertainties, or sensitivity tests on the fitted device-specific parameters. This makes it impossible to judge how robust the extrapolated PDE values are to reasonable variations in the fit.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Model section] The temperature range is stated as 'limited' but the exact functional dependence of internal efficiency on temperature is not shown; a brief explicit equation or plot would improve clarity.
  2. [Results] Comparison with literature PDE values would be strengthened by stating the wavelength range and temperature of the cited data sets.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive and detailed report. The comments highlight important aspects of the model's assumptions and the presentation of extrapolated results. We address each major comment below and indicate the revisions planned for the next manuscript version.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract, paragraph on factoring PDE: The central claim that PDE = T(medium, λ, θ) × η_internal(V, T) with η_internal invariant under immersion in liquid Xe or Ar is load-bearing for all extrapolations. All reported measurements were performed at 163 K in air or vacuum; no in-liquid absolute PDE data for the same devices are shown, so medium-dependent surface effects would go undetected by the air-only fit.

    Authors: We agree that the separation PDE = T(medium, λ, θ) × η_internal(V, T) is central to the extrapolation and that all absolute PDE data were acquired in air or vacuum. The physical basis for treating η_internal as medium-independent is that it encompasses the internal quantum efficiency, avalanche triggering probability, and fill factor, all of which occur inside the silicon bulk and are not expected to change upon immersion provided the surface passivation remains intact. The transmission term T explicitly incorporates the refractive-index mismatch and Fresnel coefficients at the new interface. Nevertheless, we acknowledge that medium-dependent surface effects (e.g., altered passivation or thin-film interference) cannot be ruled out without in-liquid measurements on the identical devices. In the revised manuscript we have added an explicit paragraph in Section 2 and in the discussion of Section 5 stating this assumption, its supporting literature references, and the consequent limitation on the absolute accuracy of the liquid predictions. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [§5] §5 (Extrapolation and liquid predictions): The quantitative predictions for liquid xenon and argon are presented without reported residuals, parameter uncertainties, or sensitivity tests on the fitted device-specific parameters. This makes it impossible to judge how robust the extrapolated PDE values are to reasonable variations in the fit.

    Authors: We accept that the original presentation of the liquid predictions lacked quantitative measures of fit quality and robustness. In the revised Section 5 we now report the reduced χ² and residuals of the broadband fit to the 350–830 nm air data, together with the covariance matrix and 1σ uncertainties on the device-specific parameters (e.g., internal quantum efficiency, surface recombination velocity). We have also added a sensitivity analysis in which each fitted parameter is varied by ±2σ while holding the others fixed; the resulting envelope of PDE curves in liquid xenon and argon is shown as shaded bands in the new Figure 8. These additions allow the reader to assess the stability of the extrapolated values directly from the manuscript. revision: yes

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged

Fitted internal efficiency from air data directly supplies liquid-medium predictions via assumed factorization

specific steps
  1. fitted input called prediction [Abstract]
    "By factoring the PDE into transmission and internal efficiency, the performance in liquid nobles and other dense media can be predicted. We successfully fit the model to the data... show the model's predictive power by extrapolating PDE to new wavelengths and operation in liquid xenon and argon"

    Device-specific internal efficiency is obtained by fitting the model to air/vacuum PDE measurements; the liquid predictions are then computed as T_liquid(λ, θ) multiplied by the same fitted η_internal, so the extrapolated values are algebraically forced by the air fit once the factorization and medium-invariance assumptions are granted.

full rationale

The derivation fits device-specific parameters (including internal efficiency) to absolute PDE data taken at 163 K over 350–830 nm. It then invokes the factorization PDE = T(medium, λ, θ) × η_internal(V, T) to generate extrapolations for VUV wavelengths and liquid Xe/Ar by altering only the transmission term while holding the fitted η_internal fixed. This makes the reported 'predictions' for dense media a direct algebraic continuation of the air-fitted values rather than an independent test. The assumption that η_internal remains invariant across media is stated but not validated by in-liquid measurements on the same devices, producing moderate circularity of the fitted-input-called-prediction type. No self-citation chains or self-definitional loops are present; the central model still contains independent physical content (Fresnel transmission, avalanche probability) beyond the fit.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on device-specific fitted parameters and the domain assumption that PDE factors into transmission and internal efficiency components that transfer to dense media.

free parameters (1)
  • device specific parameters
    Parameters for each SiPM are used to fit the PDE as a function of wavelength, angle, voltage, and temperature.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Photon Detection Efficiency can be factored into transmission efficiency and internal efficiency
    This factoring is invoked to enable performance predictions in liquid nobles and other dense media.

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