pith. sign in

arxiv: 2605.23637 · v1 · pith:SGSO66RCnew · submitted 2026-05-22 · 🌌 astro-ph.HE · astro-ph.SR

Long-term optical and near-infrared photometric evolution of SN 2019vxm, an interacting Type IIn supernova

Kl\'ara Lelkes , L\'aszl\'o Moln\'ar , J\'ozsef Vink\'o , Attila B\'odi , Zs\'ofia Bora , Borb\'ala Cseh , Csilla Kalup , R\'eka K\"onyves-T\'oth
show 7 more authors
Levente Kriskovics Andr\'as Ordasi Andr\'as P\'al B\'alint Seli Zs\'ofia Marianna Szab\'o R\'obert Szak\'ats Kriszti\'an Vida
This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-25 03:45 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.HE astro-ph.SR
keywords Type IIn supernovacircumstellar materialmass loss ratephotometric evolutioninfrared rebrighteningSN 2019vxmprogenitor mass
0
0 comments X

The pith

SN 2019vxm photometry indicates a massive progenitor with extremely high pre-supernova mass-loss rates

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This paper follows the brightness changes of SN 2019vxm across optical and near-infrared wavelengths for over 650 days optically and 1500 days in the infrared. The spectral energy distribution, bolometric luminosity, and photospheric temperature and radius show an early phase of interaction with an optically thick circumstellar shell that the shock heats and expands, followed by decoupling around 80-100 days when the photosphere recedes inside the thinned material. Infrared data show persistent dust emission plus a rebrightening near one year that is linked to a possible outer shell. Despite modeling complications from the moving photosphere and the thick-to-thin transition, the overall energy output leads to the conclusion of high progenitor and circumstellar masses with very high mass-loss rates.

Core claim

The evolution of the spectral energy distribution and bolometric luminosity, as well as the effective temperature and radius of the photosphere, indicates that the supernova was initially surrounded by an optically thick CSM, which was heated and pushed outward by the forward shock of the impacting ejecta. About 80-100 days after the explosion the forward shock and the photosphere decouples, and we observe the receding photosphere of the H-recombination front within the now thinned CSM. Near-IR measurements reveal long-lasting, slowly cooling emission from circumstellar dust around SN 2019vxm and an IR rebrightening about one year after explosion, which we tentatively identify as a signature

What carries the argument

The multicolor photometric evolution of the spectral energy distribution, bolometric luminosity, photospheric temperature and radius, together with the tentative identification of the one-year infrared rebrightening as outer CSM emission.

If this is right

  • The diversity of Type IIn supernovae is largely driven by the properties of their circumstellar material.
  • The supernova began surrounded by an optically thick CSM that the forward shock heated and expanded outward.
  • After roughly 80-100 days the photosphere recedes within the now thinned CSM, revealing the H-recombination front.
  • Long-lasting near-infrared emission traces slowly cooling circumstellar dust, with a possible outer CSM region causing the one-year rebrightening.
  • High inferred masses and mass-loss rates imply the progenitor was massive and experienced intense pre-explosion mass loss.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Long-term infrared monitoring of other interacting supernovae may similarly reveal layered CSM structures.
  • Refined models that explicitly track the photosphere motion could tighten the mass and rate estimates for this class of events.
  • The reported difficulties in modeling suggest that future work on shock propagation through thinning material will be needed to confirm the mass-loss values.

Load-bearing premise

The assumption that progenitor and CSM masses can still be inferred despite the moving photosphere, the thick-to-thin transition, and the tentative link of the infrared rebrightening to an outer circumstellar region.

What would settle it

A hydrodynamic model or additional multi-epoch spectroscopy that yields substantially lower mass-loss rates after fully incorporating the recession of the photosphere and the change from optically thick to partially thin CSM.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.23637 by Andr\'as Ordasi, Andr\'as P\'al, Attila B\'odi, B\'alint Seli, Borb\'ala Cseh, Csilla Kalup, J\'ozsef Vink\'o, Kl\'ara Lelkes, Kriszti\'an Vida, L\'aszl\'o Moln\'ar, Levente Kriskovics, R\'eka K\"onyves-T\'oth, R\'obert Szak\'ats, Zs\'ofia Bora, Zs\'ofia Marianna Szab\'o.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Sloan r-band images of SN 2019vxm obtained with the 0.8 m Ritchey–Cr´etien robotic telescope at the Piszk´estet˝o Mountain Station of Konkoly Observatory. The top panel shows the field on 03/12/2019, shortly after discov￾ery and corresponding to the first Konkoly observation used in our analysis. The bottom panel shows the same region on 24/03/2021, representing the last epoch included in this work. The po… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: The apparent brightness of SN 2019vxm over time via multi-band photometry. Diamond symbols indicate the Konkoly data; dots are from D. Y. Tsvetkov et al. (2024); blue open circles correspond to Gaia G-band observations; green triangles to ASAS–SN g-band measurements; orange crosses to TESS photometry; pink-purple triangles to Swift UVOT observations; and orange circles to LCOGT-Sinistro r-band data. Data i… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: WISE photometry of SN 2019vxm in the W1 and W2 bands. We combined individual measurements into average brightness values per season. Optical light curves from TESS and Gaia, pre-and post-maximum, respectively, are shown for reference. Note the rebrightening after 500 d. WISE brightness values are published in the Vega magnitude system. We corrected the brightnesses for Galactic extinction based on the E. F… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: UV-optical spectral energy distributions of SN 2019vxm at selected epochs. All SEDs are shown in grey, and colored curves correspond to the selected epoch indicated above each panel. The SEDs were constructed by combining the Tsvetkov UBVRI photometry with the Konkoly BVgriz measurements, and B and V fluxes were averaged when both datasets were available. Near maximum light the SEDs are extended with Swift… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Top panel: Pseudo-bolometric light curves of SN 2019vxm. Red circles correspond to the BgVriz Konkoly dataset, where the missing U-band flux was interpolated using the Tsvetkov measurements. Blue diamonds represent the UBVRI Tsvetkov dataset, complemented with the interpolated z-band fluxes from the Konkoly dataset. Bottom panel: Temporal evolution of the photospheric temperature and radius of SN 2019vxm d… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: shows, in the latter case some fits agree well with the BB temperatures, but other instances converged to significantly lower values. Discrepancies between the modified BB fit and the SED points were most notice￾able between the U and Swift UVW1 filters, where the model cannot fully replicate the step-like UV absorption UV passband. We thus did not investigate these fits any further. 3.5. Stefan-Boltzmann … view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: The velocity of the photosphere of SN 2019vxm, calculated from the Stefan-Boltzmann radii of the Tsvetkov data set. The vertical dashed line marks tp. The solid gray line shows the average of the velocities before tp, which we discuss further in Section 5.2. SEDs for detailed SED modeling without extrapolation. Below we describe the analysis of these observations. The earliest WISE data at −17 d can only b… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Temperature evolution of the hot and cool BB components inferred from the SEDs of SN 2019vxm. Top panel: purple and blue circles show the temperatures from [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Two-component BB fits to the optical–IR spec￾tral energy distributions of SN 2019vxm at the three con￾temporaneous Konkoly–Tsvetkov–WISE epochs. Blue dia￾monds indicate the observed photometric data points. The r and R bands were excluded as they are affected by strong Hα emission. The faint gray curves show 200 fits randomly drawn from the posterior distribution. The dashed orange and green curves represe… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Temporal evolution of the dust properties as a function of phase since t0. The top panel shows the dust luminosity (blue diamonds), while the bottom panel displays the temperature (green diamonds) and radius (blue circles) [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: The best-fit light curve from Model A (blue curve) with the bolometric luminosities for SN 2019vxm (cir￾cles). Note that the model LC was shifted horizontally by 7 days after explosion to get the best match between the model and the data. is an adjustable parameter when fitting the data. Since the CDS is diluting when the shock expands, NCDS is decreasing with time, and the (continuously decreasing) lumin… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Temporal evolution of the power-law index n describing the luminosity decline (L ∝ t −n ) in SN 2019vxm. Top panel: instantaneous n values, based on a sliding-win￾dow linear fit to the logarithmic bolometric light curve. Blue diamonds show the results when the phase is measured rel￾ative to tp, while orange circles correspond to phases mea￾sured relative to t0. The dashed horizontal line marks n = 5, whic… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Time evolution of the local decay timescale in￾ferred from the decline of Lbol, computed using a sliding-win￾dow fit. Blue diamonds show the results when the phase is measured relative to t0. Each point is calculated from a window of 10 consecutive data points, and its position on the x-axis corresponds to the median phase of the window. The dashed navy-blue line indicates the characteristic decay timesca… view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Logarithmic bolometric luminosity evolution compared to the expected slope of 56Co radioactive decay. The solid purple line shows the fit 56Ni+56Co model for the early phase, while the solid green line represents the best-fit pure 56Co model. The inferred nickel masses in both phases are unrealistically high. Dashed purple and green lines in￾dicate the corresponding models assuming a nickel mass of MNi = … view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Top: The best-fitting models of the optically thick CSM (Model B) to the bolometric luminosity of SN 2019vxm. Bottom: The logaritmic luminosity difference, (log Ldata − log Lmodel). See [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p020_15.png] view at source ↗
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Evolution of the photospheres. Top: temperature of the hot photosphere, same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_16.png] view at source ↗
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p028_17.png] view at source ↗
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: The early SED at 58812.25 MJD, -17.06 phase, constructed from the ASAS–SN g, TESS T, and WISE W1 and W2 photometric data, in blue. We show the later SEDs that include WISE data from [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p028_18.png] view at source ↗
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Examples of single BB fits to the IR SED of SN 2019vxm using the WISE W1 and W2 photometric data. The faint grey curves show 200 fits randomly drawn from the MCMC posterior distribution. The solid red curve represents the best-fit BB model, while blue diamonds indicate the observed photometric data points [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p030_19.png] view at source ↗
Figure 20
Figure 20. Figure 20: Optical spectral energy distributions of SN 2019vxm constructed from the full photometric datasets. The left panel shows the Konkoly dataset (BgV riz filters), while the right panel shows the Tsvetkov dataset (UBV RI filters). Colors indicate the phase measured relative to the B-band maximum (tp). B. TABLES This section presents the tabulated observational and derived quantities used in the analysis [PIT… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The diversity of Type IIn supernovae is largely driven by the properties of the circumstellar material (CSM) they explode into. We examine the temporal evolution of SN 2019vxm, an interacting supernova that belongs to the class of long-lasting Type IIn events, using multicolor photometry spanning the ultraviolet, optical and near-infrared wavelengths, including over 650 days of optical and 1500 days of IR coverage. The evolution of the spectral energy distribution and bolometric luminosity, as well as the effective temperature and radius of the photosphere, indicates that the supernova was initially surrounded by an optically thick CSM, which was heated and pushed outward by the forward shock of the impacting ejecta. About 80-100 days after the explosion the forward shock and the photosphere decouples, and we observe the receding photosphere of the H-recombination front within the now thinned CSM. Near-IR measurements reveal long-lasting, slowly cooling emission from circumstellar dust around SN 2019vxm and an IR rebrightening about one year after explosion, which we tentatively identify as a signature of an outer CSM region. We find that due to the moving photosphere and the transition from optically thick to partially thin inner CSM, modeling the explosion and subsequent interaction of the ejecta with the CSM to infer progenitor and CSM masses faces difficulties. Nevertheless, the inferred high masses and extremely high mass-loss rates point to a massive progenitor undergoing intense pre-supernova mass loss.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 0 minor

Summary. The paper reports multi-wavelength (UV/optical/NIR) photometric monitoring of the Type IIn supernova SN 2019vxm spanning >650 days in the optical and >1500 days in the IR. It describes an initial optically thick CSM phase, decoupling of the forward shock from the photosphere at ~80-100 days, subsequent recession of the H-recombination front, persistent NIR dust emission, and a tentative one-year IR rebrightening attributed to an outer CSM shell. Despite explicit caveats that the moving photosphere and thick-to-thin CSM transition complicate ejecta-CSM interaction modeling, the authors still infer high progenitor and CSM masses together with extremely high pre-explosion mass-loss rates, concluding that the event arose from a massive star with intense pre-SN mass loss.

Significance. The long temporal baseline and dense multi-band coverage constitute a valuable observational resource for the subclass of long-lasting Type IIn events. If the mass and mass-loss inferences can be placed on a firmer footing, the results would strengthen the empirical link between extreme pre-supernova mass loss and the diversity of interacting supernovae. The dataset itself is a clear strength; the quantitative progenitor conclusions remain limited by the modeling difficulties the authors themselves flag.

major comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The manuscript states that 'modeling the explosion and subsequent interaction of the ejecta with the CSM to infer progenitor and CSM masses faces difficulties' because of the moving photosphere and the optically thick-to-partially thin transition, yet proceeds to report 'inferred high masses and extremely high mass-loss rates.' No robustness checks against these dynamical and optical-depth effects are described, leaving the central quantitative claim under-constrained.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their thoughtful review and for recognizing the value of the long-term multi-band dataset. We agree that the modeling challenges limit the precision of the progenitor and CSM mass inferences, and we address the specific concern about the abstract below.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The manuscript states that 'modeling the explosion and subsequent interaction of the ejecta with the CSM to infer progenitor and CSM masses faces difficulties' because of the moving photosphere and the optically thick-to-partially thin transition, yet proceeds to report 'inferred high masses and extremely high mass-loss rates.' No robustness checks against these dynamical and optical-depth effects are described, leaving the central quantitative claim under-constrained.

    Authors: We accept this criticism. Although the abstract already notes the modeling difficulties, the subsequent claim of 'inferred high masses and extremely high mass-loss rates' is insufficiently qualified. In the revised manuscript we will rephrase the abstract to state that the observations are consistent with high progenitor and CSM masses together with extreme pre-explosion mass-loss rates, while explicitly underscoring that these are order-of-magnitude indications only. We will also add a short paragraph in the discussion section that qualitatively explores how the recession of the photosphere and the thick-to-thin transition affect simple analytic estimates of CSM mass and mass-loss rate, referencing the same caveats already present in the text. These changes will be made without introducing new numerical modeling. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: purely observational photometry and SED analysis with explicit modeling caveats

full rationale

The paper presents multicolor photometry, derives observed quantities (SED evolution, bolometric luminosity, photospheric temperature and radius) directly from data, and notes modeling difficulties from moving photosphere and thick-to-thin transition without claiming a closed derivation or prediction that reduces to fitted inputs by construction. No equations, self-citations, or ansatzes are invoked in a load-bearing way that would create circularity; the mass and mass-loss inferences are presented as tentative despite acknowledged limitations, keeping the chain self-contained against external benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

Only abstract available; no explicit free parameters, new entities, or non-standard axioms are stated beyond the domain assumption that Type IIn events involve CSM interaction.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Type IIn supernovae explode into circumstellar material lost by the progenitor
    Standard classification premise invoked to interpret the observed interaction signatures.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5909 in / 1170 out tokens · 24583 ms · 2026-05-25T03:45:35.310540+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

103 extracted references · 96 canonical work pages · 9 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    Anders , F., Khalatyan , A., Queiroz , A. B. A., et al. 2022, title Photo-astrometric distances, extinctions, and astrophysical parameters for Gaia EDR3 stars brighter than G = 18.5 , , 658, A91, 10.1051/0004-6361/202142369

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142369 2022

  2. [2]

    G., Dwek , E., Bouchet , P., et al

    Arendt , R. G., Dwek , E., Bouchet , P., et al. 2016, title Infrared Continuum and Line Evolution of the Equatorial Ring around SN 1987A , , 151, 62, 10.3847/0004-6256/151/3/62

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-6256/151/3/62 2016

  3. [3]

    Arnett , W. D. 1980, title Analytic solutions for light curves of supernovae of Type II , , 237, 541, 10.1086/157898

    work page doi:10.1086/157898 1980

  4. [4]

    Arnett , W. D. 1982, title Type I supernovae. I - Analytic solutions for the early part of the light curve , , 253, 785, 10.1086/159681

    work page doi:10.1086/159681 1982

  5. [5]

    P., Bora , Z., et al

    Barna , B., Nagy , A. P., Bora , Z., et al. 2023, title Three is the magic number: Distance measurement of NGC 3147 using SN 2021hpr and its siblings , , 677, A183, 10.1051/0004-6361/202346395

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346395 2023

  6. [6]

    C., & Hamuy , M

    Bersten , M. C., & Hamuy , M. 2009, title Bolometric Light Curves for 33 Type II Plateau Supernovae , , 701, 200, 10.1088/0004-637X/701/1/200

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/701/1/200 2009

  7. [7]

    S., Castelli , F., & Plez , B

    Bessell , M. S., Castelli , F., & Plez , B. 1998, title Model atmospheres broad-band colors, bolometric corrections and temperature calibrations for O - M stars , , 333, 231

    1998

  8. [8]

    G., et al

    Bilinski , C., Smith , N., Williams , G. G., et al. 2024, title Multi-epoch spectropolarimetry for a sample of Type IIn Supernovae: persistent asymmetry in dusty circumstellar material , , 529, 1104, 10.1093/mnras/stae380

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae380 2024

  9. [9]

    G., et al

    Bilinski , C., Smith , N., Williams , G. G., et al. 2020, title SN 2014ab: an aspherical Type IIn supernova with low polarization , , 498, 3835, 10.1093/mnras/staa2617

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2617 2020

  10. [10]

    2022, title Initial Ni-56 Masses in Type Ia Supernovae , , 134, 054201, 10.1088/1538-3873/ac63e7

    Bora , Z., Vink \'o , J., & K \"o nyves-T \'o th , R. 2022, title Initial Ni-56 Masses in Type Ia Supernovae , , 134, 054201, 10.1088/1538-3873/ac63e7

    work page doi:10.1088/1538-3873/ac63e7 2022

  11. [11]

    2022, title The Pantheon+ Analysis: Cosmological Constraints , , 938, 110, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac8e04

    Brout , D., Scolnic , D., Popovic , B., et al. 2022, title The Pantheon+ Analysis: Cosmological Constraints , , 938, 110, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac8e04

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8e04 2022

  12. [12]

    Brown, N

    Brown , T. M., Baliber , N., Bianco , F. B., et al. 2013, title Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network , , 125, 1031, 10.1086/673168

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1086/673168 2013

  13. [13]

    2019, title ASASSN-19acc: Discovery of A Bright Type IIn Supernova in the TESS Field , The Astronomer's Telegram, 13326, 1

    Cacella , P., Cruz , I., Brimacombe , J., et al. 2019, title ASASSN-19acc: Discovery of A Bright Type IIn Supernova in the TESS Field , The Astronomer's Telegram, 13326, 1

    2019

  14. [14]

    M., Ng , C.-Y., et al

    Cendes , Y., Gaensler , B. M., Ng , C.-Y., et al. 2018, title The Reacceleration of the Shock Wave in the Radio Remnant of SN 1987A , , 867, 65, 10.3847/1538-4357/aae261

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aae261 2018

  15. [15]

    The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys

    Chambers , K. C., Magnier , E. A., Metcalfe , N., et al. 2016, title The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:1612.05560, 10.48550/arXiv.1612.05560

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.48550/arxiv.1612.05560 2016

  16. [16]

    A., James , N

    Chandra , P., Chevalier , R. A., James , N. J. H., & Fox , O. D. 2022, title The luminous type IIn supernova SN 2017hcc: Infrared bright, X-ray, and radio faint , , 517, 4151, 10.1093/mnras/stac2915

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2915 2022

  17. [17]

    C., & Vink\'o , J

    Chatzopoulos , E., Wheeler , J. C., & Vink\'o , J. 2012, title Generalized Semi-analytical Models of Supernova Light Curves , , 746, 121, 10.1088/0004-637X/746/2/121

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/746/2/121 2012

  18. [18]

    C., Vink\'o , J., Horvath , Z

    Chatzopoulos , E., Wheeler , J. C., Vink\'o , J., Horvath , Z. L., & Nagy , A. 2013, title Analytical Light Curve Models of Superluminous Supernovae: ^ 2 -minimization of Parameter Fits , , 773, 76, 10.1088/0004-637X/773/1/76

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/773/1/76 2013

  19. [19]

    C., Vinko , J., et al

    Chatzopoulos , E., Wheeler , J. C., Vinko , J., et al. 2011, title SN 2008am: A Super-luminous Type IIn Supernova , , 729, 143, 10.1088/0004-637X/729/2/143

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/729/2/143 2011

  20. [20]

    Chevalier , R. A. 1982, title Self-similar solutions for the interaction of stellar ejecta with an external medium. , , 258, 790, 10.1086/160126

    work page doi:10.1086/160126 1982

  21. [21]

    A., & Fransson , C

    Chevalier , R. A., & Fransson , C. 1994, title Emission from Circumstellar Interaction in Normal Type II Supernovae , , 420, 268, 10.1086/173557

    work page doi:10.1086/173557 1994

  22. [22]

    A., & Fransson, C

    Chevalier, R. A., & Fransson, C. 2003, Supernova Interaction with a Circumstellar Medium (Springer Berlin Heidelberg), 171–194, 10.1007/3-540-45863-8_10

    work page doi:10.1007/3-540-45863-8_10 2003

  23. [23]

    Cleveland, W. S. 1979, title Robust Locally Weighted Regression and Smoothing Scatterplots, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74, 829, 10.1080/01621459.1979.10481038

    work page doi:10.1080/01621459.1979.10481038 1979

  24. [24]

    2023, title Cosmic rate of type IIn supernovae and its evolution with redshift , , 670, A48, 10.1051/0004-6361/202244867

    Cold , C., & Hjorth , J. 2023, title Cosmic rate of type IIn supernovae and its evolution with redshift , , 670, A48, 10.1051/0004-6361/202244867

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244867 2023

  25. [25]

    2024, title Probing the Circumstellar Environment of the Highly Luminous Type IIn Supernova ASASSN-14il , , 976, 86, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad7e11

    Dukiya , N., Gangopadhyay , A., Misra , K., et al. 2024, title Probing the Circumstellar Environment of the Highly Luminous Type IIn Supernova ASASSN-14il , , 976, 86, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad7e11

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad7e11 2024

  26. [26]

    2019, title Recombination Effects on Supernova Light Curves , , 879, 20, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab218a

    Faran , T., Goldfriend , T., Nakar , E., & Sari , R. 2019, title Recombination Effects on Supernova Light Curves , , 879, 20, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab218a

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab218a 2019

  27. [27]

    W., Lang, D., & Goodman, J

    Foreman-Mackey , D., Hogg , D. W., Lang , D., & Goodman , J. 2013, title emcee: The MCMC Hammer , , 125, 306, 10.1086/670067

    work page doi:10.1086/670067 2013

  28. [28]

    D., Chevalier , R

    Fox , O. D., Chevalier , R. A., Dwek , E., et al. 2010, title Disentangling the Origin and Heating Mechanism of Supernova Dust: Late-time Spitzer Spectroscopy of the Type IIn SN 2005ip , , 725, 1768, 10.1088/0004-637X/725/2/1768

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/725/2/1768 2010

  29. [29]

    J., et al

    Fransson , C., Ergon , M., Challis , P. J., et al. 2014, title High-density Circumstellar Interaction in the Luminous Type IIn SN 2010jl: The First 1100 Days , , 797, 118, 10.1088/0004-637X/797/2/118

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/797/2/118 2014

  30. [30]

    Gaia Collaboration , Prusti , T., de Bruijne , J. H. J., et al. 2016, title The Gaia mission , , 595, A1, 10.1051/0004-6361/201629272

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629272 2016

  31. [31]

    2023, title Gaia Data Release 3

    Gaia Collaboration , Montegriffo , P., Bellazzini , M., et al. 2023, title Gaia Data Release 3. The Galaxy in your preferred colours: Synthetic photometry from Gaia low-resolution spectra , , 674, A33, 10.1051/0004-6361/202243709

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243709 2023

  32. [32]

    2014, title Rapid formation of large dust grains in the luminous supernova 2010jl , , 511, 326, 10.1038/nature13558

    Gall , C., Hjorth , J., Watson , D., et al. 2014, title Rapid formation of large dust grains in the luminous supernova 2010jl , , 511, 326, 10.1038/nature13558

    work page doi:10.1038/nature13558 2014

  33. [33]

    Gehrels, G

    Gehrels , N., Chincarini , G., Giommi , P., et al. 2004, title The Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission , , 611, 1005, 10.1086/422091

    work page doi:10.1086/422091 2004

  34. [34]

    J., Hey , D., et al

    Hart , K., Shappee , B. J., Hey , D., et al. 2023, title ASAS-SN Sky Patrol V2.0 , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2304.03791, 10.48550/arXiv.2304.03791

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2304.03791 2023

  35. [35]

    2026, title Fading Echoes of Interaction: Probing Centuries of Preexplosion Mass Loss in Four Type IIn Supernovae , , 1001, 111, 10.3847/1538-4357/ae4e22

    Hillenkamp , E., Baer-Way , R., Chandra , P., et al. 2026, title Fading Echoes of Interaction: Probing Centuries of Preexplosion Mass Loss in Four Type IIn Supernovae , , 1001, 111, 10.3847/1538-4357/ae4e22

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae4e22 2026

  36. [36]

    Hiramatsu , D., Matsumoto , T., Berger , E., et al. 2024, title Multiple Peaks and a Long Precursor in the Type IIn Supernova 2021qqp: An Energetic Explosion in a Complex Circumstellar Environment , , 964, 181, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad2854

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad2854 2024

  37. [37]

    T., Harrison , D

    Hodgkin , S. T., Harrison , D. L., Breedt , E., et al. 2021, title Gaia Early Data Release 3. Gaia photometric science alerts , , 652, A76, 10.1051/0004-6361/202140735

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140735 2021

  38. [38]

    M., & Davidson , K

    Humphreys , R. M., & Davidson , K. 1994, title The Luminous Blue Variables: Astrophysical Geysers , , 106, 1025, 10.1086/133478

    work page doi:10.1086/133478 1994

  39. [39]

    M., Davidson , K., & Smith , N

    Humphreys , R. M., Davidson , K., & Smith , N. 1999, title Carinae's Second Eruption and the Light Curves of the Carinae Variables , , 111, 1124, 10.1086/316420

    work page doi:10.1086/316420 1999

  40. [40]

    2023, title Near-infrared evolution of the equatorial ring of SN 1987A , , 675, A166, 10.1051/0004-6361/202245829

    Kangas , T., Ahola , A., Fransson , C., et al. 2023, title Near-infrared evolution of the equatorial ring of SN 1987A , , 675, A166, 10.1051/0004-6361/202245829

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245829 2023

  41. [41]

    K., & Kasen , D

    Khatami , D. K., & Kasen , D. N. 2024, title The Landscape of Thermal Transients from Supernovae Interacting with a Circumstellar Medium , , 972, 140, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad60c0

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad60c0 2024

  42. [42]

    Kiewe , M., Gal-Yam , A., Arcavi , I., et al. 2012, title Caltech Core-Collapse Project (CCCP) Observations of Type IIn Supernovae: Typical Properties and Implications for Their Progenitor Stars , , 744, 10, 10.1088/0004-637X/744/1/10

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/744/1/10 2012

  43. [43]

    S., Shappee , B

    Kochanek , C. S., Shappee , B. J., Stanek , K. Z., et al. 2017, title The All-Sky Automated Survey for Supernovae (ASAS-SN) Light Curve Server v1.0 , , 129, 104502, 10.1088/1538-3873/aa80d9

    work page doi:10.1088/1538-3873/aa80d9 2017

  44. [44]

    Kokubo , M., Mitsuda , K., Morokuma , T., et al. 2019, title A Long-duration Luminous Type IIn Supernova KISS15s: Strong Recombination Lines from the Inhomogeneous Ejecta-CSM Interaction Region and Hot Dust Emission from Newly Formed Dust , , 872, 135, 10.3847/1538-4357/aaff6b

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaff6b 2019

  45. [45]

    Lamers , H. J. G. L. M., & Cassinelli , J. P. 1999, Introduction to Stellar Winds ( Cambridge University Press )

    1999

  46. [46]

    G., Ridden-Harper , R., Rest , S., et al

    Lane , Z. G., Ridden-Harper , R., Rest , S., et al. 2026, title SN 2019vxm: A Shocking Coincidence between Fermi and TESS , , 1003, 10.3847/1538-4357/ae6245

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae6245 2026

  47. [47]

    2019, title Transient Classification Report for 2019-12-02 , Transient Name Server Classification Report, 2019-2506, 1

    Leadbeater , R. 2019, title Transient Classification Report for 2019-12-02 , Transient Name Server Classification Report, 2019-2506, 1

    2019

  48. [48]

    arXiv:1104.3868 [astro-ph.CO] 284 Roedig C, Sesana A, Dotti M, Cuadra J, Amaro-Seoane P, Haardt F (2012) Evolution of binary black holes in self gravitating discs

    Li , W., Leaman , J., Chornock , R., et al. 2011, title Nearby supernova rates from the Lick Observatory Supernova Search - II. The observed luminosity functions and fractions of supernovae in a complete sample , , 412, 1441, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18160.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18160.x 2011

  49. [49]

    D., Bersier , D., & James , P

    Lyman , J. D., Bersier , D., & James , P. A. 2014, title Bolometric corrections for optical light curves of core-collapse supernovae , , 437, 3848, 10.1093/mnras/stt2187

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stt2187 2014

  50. [50]

    2011, title Preliminary Results from NEOWISE: An Enhancement to the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer for Solar System Science , , 731, 53, 10.1088/0004-637X/731/1/53

    Mainzer , A., Bauer , J., Grav , T., et al. 2011, title Preliminary Results from NEOWISE: An Enhancement to the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer for Solar System Science , , 731, 53, 10.1088/0004-637X/731/1/53

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/731/1/53 2011

  51. [51]

    M., et al

    Mainzer , A., Bauer , J., Cutri , R. M., et al. 2014, title Initial Performance of the NEOWISE Reactivation Mission , , 792, 30, 10.1088/0004-637X/792/1/30

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/792/1/30 2014

  52. [52]

    C., Anderson , J

    Martinez , L., Bersten , M. C., Anderson , J. P., et al. 2022, title Type II supernovae from the Carnegie Supernova Project-I. I. Bolometric light curves of 74 SNe II using uBgVriYJH photometry , , 660, A40, 10.1051/0004-6361/202142075

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142075 2022

  53. [53]

    Meegan, G

    Meegan , C., Lichti , G., Bhat , P. N., et al. 2009, title The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor , , 702, 791, 10.1088/0004-637X/702/1/791

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/702/1/791 2009

  54. [54]

    1941, title Spectra of Supernovae , , 53, 224, 10.1086/125315

    Minkowski , R. 1941, title Spectra of Supernovae , , 53, 224, 10.1086/125315

    work page doi:10.1086/125315 1941

  55. [55]

    2023, title A long life of excess: The interacting transient SN 2017hcc , , 669, A51, 10.1051/0004-6361/202244565

    Moran , S., Fraser , M., Kotak , R., et al. 2023, title A long life of excess: The interacting transient SN 2017hcc , , 669, A51, 10.1051/0004-6361/202244565

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244565 2023

  56. [56]

    arXiv:1104.3868 [astro-ph.CO] 284 Roedig C, Sesana A, Dotti M, Cuadra J, Amaro-Seoane P, Haardt F (2012) Evolution of binary black holes in self gravitating discs

    Moriya , T., Tominaga , N., Blinnikov , S. I., Baklanov , P. V., & Sorokina , E. I. 2011, title Supernovae from red supergiants with extensive mass loss , , 415, 199, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18689.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18689.x 2011

  57. [57]

    Moriya , T. J. 2014, title On the 'snow-plow' phase of supernovae interacting with dense circumstellar media , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:1402.2519, 10.48550/arXiv.1402.2519

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.48550/arxiv.1402.2519 2014

  58. [58]

    J., Stritzinger , M

    Moriya , T. J., Stritzinger , M. D., Taddia , F., et al. 2020, title The Carnegie Supernova Project II. Observations of SN 2014ab possibly revealing a 2010jl-like SN IIn with pre-existing dust , , 641, A148, 10.1051/0004-6361/202038118

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038118 2020

  59. [59]

    J., Galbany , L., Jim \'e nez-Palau , C., et al

    Moriya , T. J., Galbany , L., Jim \'e nez-Palau , C., et al. 2023, title Environmental dependence of Type IIn supernova properties , , 677, A20, 10.1051/0004-6361/202346703

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346703 2023

  60. [60]

    2006, title Nucleosynthesis yields of core-collapse supernovae and hypernovae, and galactic chemical evolution , , 777, 424, 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2006.05.008

    Nomoto , K., Tominaga , N., Umeda , H., Kobayashi , C., & Maeda , K. 2006, title Nucleosynthesis yields of core-collapse supernovae and hypernovae, and galactic chemical evolution , , 777, 424, 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2006.05.008

    work page doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2006.05.008 2006

  61. [61]

    2020, title Type IIn supernova light-curve properties measured from an untargeted survey sample , , 637, A73, 10.1051/0004-6361/201936097

    Nyholm , A., Sollerman , J., Tartaglia , L., et al. 2020, title Type IIn supernova light-curve properties measured from an untargeted survey sample , , 637, A73, 10.1051/0004-6361/201936097

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936097 2020

  62. [62]

    K., Fransson , C., & Kozma , C

    Nymark , T. K., Fransson , C., & Kozma , C. 2006, title X-ray emission from radiative shocks in type II supernovae , , 449, 171, 10.1051/0004-6361:20054169

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20054169 2006

  63. [63]

    O., Sullivan , M., Cenko , S

    Ofek , E. O., Sullivan , M., Cenko , S. B., et al. 2013, title An outburst from a massive star 40 days before a supernova explosion , , 494, 65, 10.1038/nature11877

    work page doi:10.1038/nature11877 2013

  64. [64]

    O., Sullivan , M., Shaviv , N

    Ofek , E. O., Sullivan , M., Shaviv , N. J., et al. 2014 a , title Precursors Prior to Type IIn Supernova Explosions are Common: Precursor Rates, Properties, and Correlations , , 789, 104, 10.1088/0004-637X/789/2/104

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/789/2/104 2014

  65. [65]

    O., Zoglauer , A., Boggs , S

    Ofek , E. O., Zoglauer , A., Boggs , S. E., et al. 2014 b , title SN 2010jl: Optical to Hard X-Ray Observations Reveal an Explosion Embedded in a Ten Solar Mass Cocoon , , 781, 42, 10.1088/0004-637X/781/1/42

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/781/1/42 2014

  66. [66]

    I., Smith , G

    Ponte P \'e rez , A. I., Smith , G. P., Nicholl , M., et al. 2026, title The impact of ultraviolet suppression on the rates and properties of strongly lensed Type IIn supernovae detected by LSST , , 546, stag009, 10.1093/mnras/stag009

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stag009 2026

  67. [67]

    arXiv:0704.0316 [astro-ph] Graham AW, Soria R, Davis BL (2019) Expected intermediate-mass black holes in the Virgo clus- ter - II

    Poole , T. S., Breeveld , A. A., Page , M. J., et al. 2008, title Photometric calibration of the Swift ultraviolet/optical telescope , , 383, 627, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12563.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12563.x 2008

  68. [68]

    L., & Villar , V

    Ransome , C. L., & Villar , V. A. 2025, title Unveiling the Diversity of Type IIn Supernovae via Systematic Light-curve Modeling , , 987, 13, 10.3847/1538-4357/adce03

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adce03 2025

  69. [69]

    R., Winn, J

    Ricker , G. R., Winn , J. N., Vanderspek , R., et al. 2015, title Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) , Journal of Astronomical Telescopes, Instruments, and Systems, 1, 014003, 10.1117/1.JATIS.1.1.014003

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1117/1.jatis.1.1.014003 2015

  70. [70]

    G., Casertano , S., Yuan , W., et al

    Riess , A. G., Casertano , S., Yuan , W., et al. 2021, title Cosmic Distances Calibrated to 1\

    2021

  71. [71]

    Roming , P. W. A., Pritchard , T. A., Prieto , J. L., et al. 2012, title The Unusual Temporal and Spectral Evolution of the Type IIn Supernova 2011ht , , 751, 92, 10.1088/0004-637X/751/2/92

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/751/2/92 2012

  72. [72]

    E., de Koter, A., et al

    Sana , H., de Mink , S. E., de Koter , A., et al. 2012, title Binary Interaction Dominates the Evolution of Massive Stars , Science, 337, 444, 10.1126/science.1223344

    work page doi:10.1126/science.1223344 2012

  73. [73]

    Sarangi , A., Dwek , E., & Arendt , R. G. 2018, title Delayed Shock-induced Dust Formation in the Dense Circumstellar Shell Surrounding the Type IIn Supernova SN 2010jl , , 859, 66, 10.3847/1538-4357/aabfc3

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aabfc3 2018

  74. [74]

    F., & Finkbeiner, D

    Schlafly , E. F., & Finkbeiner , D. P. 2011, title Measuring Reddening with Sloan Digital Sky Survey Stellar Spectra and Recalibrating SFD , , 737, 103, 10.1088/0004-637X/737/2/103

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1088/0004-637x/737/2/103 2011

  75. [75]

    Schlegel, D.P

    Schlegel , D. J., Finkbeiner , D. P., & Davis , M. 1998, title Maps of Dust Infrared Emission for Use in Estimation of Reddening and Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Foregrounds , , 500, 525, 10.1086/305772

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1086/305772 1998

  76. [76]

    Schlegel , E. M. 1990, title A new subclass of type II supernovae ? , , 244, 269

    1990

  77. [77]

    J., Prieto , J

    Shappee , B. J., Prieto , J. L., Grupe , D., et al. 2014, title The Man behind the Curtain: X-Rays Drive the UV through NIR Variability in the 2013 Active Galactic Nucleus Outburst in NGC 2617 , , 788, 48, 10.1088/0004-637X/788/1/48

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1088/0004-637x/788/1/48 2014

  78. [78]

    2014, title Mass Loss: Its Effect on the Evolution and Fate of High-Mass Stars , , 52, 487, 10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-040025

    Smith , N. 2014, title Mass Loss: Its Effect on the Evolution and Fate of High-Mass Stars , , 52, 487, 10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-040025

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-040025 2014

  79. [79]

    2017, title Interacting Supernovae: Types IIn and Ibn , in Handbook of Supernovae, ed

    Smith , N. 2017, title Interacting Supernovae: Types IIn and Ibn , in Handbook of Supernovae, ed. A. W. Alsabti & P. Murdin , 403, 10.1007/978-3-319-21846-5_38

    work page doi:10.1007/978-3-319-21846-5_38 2017

  80. [80]

    E., Milne , P., et al

    Smith , N., Andrews , J. E., Milne , P., et al. 2024, title SN 2015da: late-time observations of a persistent superluminous Type IIn supernova with post-shock dust formation , , 530, 405, 10.1093/mnras/stae726

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae726 2024

Showing first 80 references.