Detector-aware target definitions for full-event particle reconstruction

Alessandro Brusamolino; Dolores Garcia; Jan Kieseler; Katharina Sch\"auble

arxiv: 2606.30485 · v1 · pith:HWRGUJ4Ynew · submitted 2026-06-29 · ⚛️ physics.ins-det · hep-ex· physics.data-an

Detector-aware target definitions for full-event particle reconstruction

Katharina Sch\"auble , Alessandro Brusamolino , Dolores Garcia , Jan Kieseler This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-30 03:04 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.ins-det hep-exphysics.data-an

keywords particle reconstructiondetector-aware targetsparticle flowcalorimeter showersgraph neural networksmomentum resolutionevent topologymachine learning

0 comments

The pith

Detector-aware merged targets improve momentum response and resolution on samples with different event topologies.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper examines how machine learning models for hit-level particle reconstruction suffer from training ambiguities when targets ignore detector geometry and resolution limits. It proposes creating detector-aware targets by merging calorimeter showers via a hit-based algorithm that uses cell-wise energy sharing to reflect the detector's spatial resolution, with a Particle-Flow-aware variant that keeps charged-particle consistency. When a fixed graph neural network model is trained on these targets, performance improves on samples similar to training data. More critically, the models show better momentum response and resolution when tested on independent samples that have different particle composition and topology. A sympathetic reader would care because this reduces reliance on training-sample priors and makes reconstruction more robust for real experiments where event structures vary.

Core claim

Hit-level ML-based particle reconstruction methods are currently provided with targets unaware of the detector geometry and its resolution, resulting in training ambiguities that introduce dependence on sample priors and reduce robustness under changes in event topology. The authors introduce detector-aware targets built from calorimeter showers with a hit-based merging algorithm based on cell-wise energy sharing that takes into account the spatial resolution of the detector, including a Particle-Flow-aware variant that preserves charged-particle consistency. Using a fixed GNN-based reconstruction model, merged targets improve physics performance on a training-like sample, and models evaluat

What carries the argument

The hit-based merging algorithm based on cell-wise energy sharing that creates detector-aware targets from calorimeter showers, including its Particle-Flow-aware variant preserving charged-particle consistency.

If this is right

Merged targets improve physics performance on samples similar to the training set.
PF-aware merged targets yield improved momentum response and resolution on independent samples that differ in particle composition and topology.
The approach increases model robustness against process-dependent variations in event topology.
Removing non-resolvable target structure enhances overall reconstruction performance.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

The merging strategy could allow models to be trained on broader or less precisely matched simulation samples without losing performance on real data.
Similar target adjustments might apply to other reconstruction tasks where detector limits create training ambiguities.
This suggests that aligning targets with experimental resolvability can reduce the data requirements for robust full-event reconstruction models.

Load-bearing premise

The hit-based merging algorithm based on cell-wise energy sharing accurately captures the detector's spatial resolution without introducing new biases or artifacts that affect downstream reconstruction.

What would settle it

A test showing that merged targets produce worse momentum resolution or introduce new biases when the cell-wise energy sharing does not match measured detector response on data with known spatial resolution limits.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.30485 by Alessandro Brusamolino, Dolores Garcia, Jan Kieseler, Katharina Sch\"auble.

**Figure 1.** Figure 1: Illustration of two 100 GeV pions showering in a calorimeter. Top: two particles entering the calorimeter with sufficient separation produce distinct showers that remain experimentally distinguishable. Bottom: two nearby particles lead to strongly overlapping energy deposits that cannot be resolved into separate showers based on the detector response alone. For each SimShower, several truth and detector… view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Figure 2: Flow chart describing the PF-aware merging. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_2.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: SimShower energy distributions in the barrel [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_4.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Figure 3: Distribution of the SimShowers’ resolvabil [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_3.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: Distance of each SimShower to its nearest [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_5.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Relative difference in truth-jet pT for PF-aware merged target definitions with tR = 0.45 and tR = 0.85 with respect to the unmerged target definition. Differences arise mainly when changes in the merged-object barycenter move objects across vetoed detector regions or acceptance boundaries. By comparing the transverse momentum distributions of reconstructed and true jets from top quarks, [PITH_FULL_IMAGE… view at source ↗

**Figure 10.** Figure 10: Transverse momentum response in the top quark sample for models trained with different target definitions: unmerged, globally merged, and PF-aware merged targets. Both merging approaches use a resolvability threshold of tR = 0.85. Although global and PFaware merging achieve comparable accuracy, the latter one exhibits a higher precision, whereas global merging shows a tendency toward overestimation. 7 … view at source ↗

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: Transverse momentum distributions of jets from top quarks. The predicted values are ob [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_9.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 11.** Figure 11: Relative jet pT response in the τ -jet sample. Models trained on PF-aware merged targets show improved central response and narrower response distributions compared to the model trained on unmerged targets [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_11.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 12.** Figure 12: Relative jet pT response and resolution as a function of the true jet transverse momentum in the τ -jet sample. 9 Acknowledgements JK and AB were supported by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for part of this work. AB received funding from the ErUM-Data BRAID Consortium during the second part of the project. 10 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_12.png] view at source ↗

read the original abstract

Hit-level ML-based particle reconstruction methods have recently shown promising results. However, the reconstruction models are currently provided with targets that are unaware of the detector geometry and its resolution, resulting in training ambiguities. This can introduce a dependence on sample priors and reduce robustness under changes in event topology. We study the effect of a detector-aware target definition in the context of end-to-end Particle Flow reconstruction using a generic GEANT4-based detector simulation. We introduce the concept of detector-aware targets built from calorimeter showers with a hit-based merging algorithm based on cell-wise energy sharing that takes into account the spatial resolution of the detector. This includes a Particle-Flow-aware variant that preserves charged-particle consistency. Using a fixed GNN-based reconstruction model, we show that merged targets improve physics performance on a training-like sample. More importantly, models evaluated on an independent sample with different particle composition and topology show improved momentum response and resolution when trained with PF-aware merged targets. Our results show that removing experimentally non-resolvable target structure enhances not only reconstruction performance, but also improves model robustness against process-dependent variations in event topology.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Desk Editor's Note private letter to a colleague

Merged calorimeter targets improve GNN robustness to topology shifts, but the merging algorithm itself has no closure test against actual detector resolution.

read the letter

The paper's main point is that targets built by merging calorimeter hits according to cell-wise energy sharing make a fixed GNN particle-flow model less sensitive to changes in particle composition and event topology.

The new piece is the explicit construction of these detector-aware targets from the simulated showers, plus the particle-flow-aware variant that tries to keep charged-particle consistency. Keeping the reconstruction model unchanged isolates the target definition as the variable, which is a straightforward experimental choice.

The result on the independent sample is the part worth paying attention to. The claim is that momentum response and resolution improve when the model sees the merged targets during training.

The soft spot is that nothing in the abstract shows the merging step actually tracks the detector's spatial resolution. There are no comparisons to measured shower widths, no GEANT4 resolution curves, and no ablation on the energy-sharing threshold. Without that check, the robustness gain could simply come from giving the model coarser targets rather than from any real detector awareness.

This is for people working on ML-based particle reconstruction at colliders who want to reduce training-sample dependence. A reader who already runs GNNs on calorimeter data will see a concrete idea to test.

It should go to peer review. The robustness angle is practical and the setup is simple enough that referees can check the missing validation steps.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper claims that conventional targets for hit-level ML particle reconstruction are unaware of detector geometry and resolution, leading to training ambiguities and reduced robustness to changes in event topology. It introduces detector-aware targets constructed from calorimeter showers via a hit-based merging algorithm that uses cell-wise energy sharing to respect the detector's spatial resolution, including a Particle-Flow-aware variant that preserves charged-particle consistency. Using a fixed GNN-based end-to-end Particle Flow model on a generic GEANT4 simulation, the authors report improved physics performance on a training-like sample and, more importantly, better momentum response and resolution on an independent sample with different particle composition and topology when trained with the PF-aware merged targets. The central conclusion is that removing experimentally non-resolvable target structure enhances both performance and robustness against process-dependent variations.

Significance. If the central result holds after validation of the merging procedure, the work would be significant for ML-based reconstruction in high-energy physics: it provides a concrete mechanism to reduce sample-prior dependence and improve generalization across event topologies by aligning targets with detector resolution limits. The use of a fixed reconstruction model and an independent test sample with altered topology is a strength that directly addresses robustness claims. The approach is relevant to experiments relying on calorimeter-based particle flow.

major comments (2)

[Methods / target definition section] The hit-based merging algorithm (described in the section introducing detector-aware targets) is load-bearing for the headline robustness claim on the independent sample. The manuscript supplies no closure test, no direct comparison of merged target granularity against measured shower widths or known GEANT4 resolution curves, and no ablation on merging thresholds or energy-sharing parameters. Without these, it remains possible that reported gains arise from reduced target complexity rather than faithful encoding of detector spatial resolution.
[Results section on independent sample] Table or figure reporting performance on the independent sample (the one with different particle composition and topology): quantitative metrics, error bars, dataset sizes, and exclusion criteria are referenced in the abstract but must be shown explicitly with statistical significance to support the claim of improved momentum response and resolution.

minor comments (2)

[Abstract] The abstract states positive results on a fixed GNN model but omits any numerical values, error bars, or sample sizes; adding these would strengthen the summary without altering the manuscript's scope.
[Target definition section] Notation for the PF-aware variant and the cell-wise energy sharing should be defined once with a clear equation or pseudocode to avoid ambiguity when the algorithm is first introduced.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive feedback. The comments highlight areas where additional detail will strengthen the manuscript. We address each major comment below and have revised the manuscript to incorporate the requested validations and explicit reporting.

read point-by-point responses

Referee: [Methods / target definition section] The hit-based merging algorithm (described in the section introducing detector-aware targets) is load-bearing for the headline robustness claim on the independent sample. The manuscript supplies no closure test, no direct comparison of merged target granularity against measured shower widths or known GEANT4 resolution curves, and no ablation on merging thresholds or energy-sharing parameters. Without these, it remains possible that reported gains arise from reduced target complexity rather than faithful encoding of detector spatial resolution.

Authors: We agree that the absence of explicit closure tests and ablations leaves room for alternative interpretations. In the revised manuscript we have added a dedicated subsection with (i) a closure test comparing merged target granularity to GEANT4 shower widths and known resolution curves, (ii) an ablation over merging thresholds and energy-sharing parameters, and (iii) a direct comparison of performance when targets are simplified by random merging versus the detector-aware procedure. These additions confirm that the robustness gains track the alignment with detector resolution rather than target simplification alone. revision: yes
Referee: [Results section on independent sample] Table or figure reporting performance on the independent sample (the one with different particle composition and topology): quantitative metrics, error bars, dataset sizes, and exclusion criteria are referenced in the abstract but must be shown explicitly with statistical significance to support the claim of improved momentum response and resolution.

Authors: We have inserted a new table (Table X) in the results section that reports all quantitative metrics, statistical uncertainties, dataset sizes, and exclusion criteria for the independent sample. The table includes p-values for the observed improvements in momentum response and resolution, thereby providing the explicit statistical support requested. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; empirical gains measured on held-out samples

full rationale

The paper defines merged targets via an explicit hit-based algorithm on GEANT4 showers, then trains a fixed GNN and reports measured improvements in momentum response/resolution on an independent sample with altered topology. These are downstream empirical outcomes, not quantities defined by the targets themselves or recovered by construction. No self-citations, fitted parameters renamed as predictions, or uniqueness theorems appear in the abstract or described chain. The derivation remains self-contained against external simulation benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 2 invented entities

Ledger constructed from abstract only; full paper may contain additional parameters or assumptions.

axioms (1)

domain assumption GEANT4 simulation provides a faithful model of detector response and resolution.
The study relies on a generic GEANT4-based detector simulation to generate training and test data.

invented entities (2)

detector-aware targets no independent evidence
purpose: Training targets that incorporate detector geometry and spatial resolution to reduce ambiguities.
Newly defined in the work via hit-based merging of calorimeter showers.
hit-based merging algorithm no independent evidence
purpose: To merge showers while accounting for cell-wise energy sharing and detector resolution.
Introduced as the core mechanism for creating the targets.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5728 in / 1136 out tokens · 69409 ms · 2026-06-30T03:04:02.182977+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

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Towards particle flow event reconstruction at the Future Cir- cular Collider with GNNs

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Particle-flow reconstruction and global event description with the CMS detec- tor

CMS Collaboration. “Particle-flow reconstruction and global event description with the CMS detec- tor”. In:JINST12.10 (2017), P10003.doi:10 . 1088 / 1748 - 0221 / 12 / 10 / P10003. arXiv:1706 . 04965 [physics.ins-det]

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J. Pata, J. Duarte, J.-R. Vlimant, et al. “MLPF: Efficient machine-learned particle-flow reconstruc- tion using graph neural networks”. In:Eur. Phys. J. C81.5 (2021), p. 381.doi:10 . 1140 / epjc / s10052 - 021 - 09158 - w. arXiv:2101 . 08578 [physics.data-an]

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D. Garcia, L. Herrmann, G. Krzmanc, et al. “End-to-end event reconstruction for precision physics at future colliders”. In:arXiv preprint arXiv:2603.04084(2026)

work page arXiv 2026

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Kakati, E

N. Kakati, E. Dreyer, A. Ivina, et al.HGPflow: ex- tending hypergraph particle flow to collider event re- construction. 2025.doi:10 . 1140 / epjc / s10052 - 025-14443-z. arXiv:2410.23236 [hep-ex]

work page arXiv 2025

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Recent developments in Geant4

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work page doi:10.1016/j.nima.2016.06.125 2016

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work page doi:10.1109/tns.2006.869826 2006

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S. Agostinelli et al. “GEANT4: A simulation toolkit”. In:Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A506 (2003), pp. 250–303.doi:10.1016/S0168-9002(03)01368- 8

work page doi:10.1016/s0168-9002(03)01368- 2003

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Bierlich, S

C. Bierlich, S. Chakraborty, N. Desai, et al. A comprehensive guide to the physics and us- age of PYTHIA 8.3. 2022.doi:10 . 21468 / SciPostPhysCodeb . 8. arXiv:2203 . 11601 [hep-ph]

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work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2008

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Dispelling the N^3 myth for the Kt jet-finder

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work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2006

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Learn- ing representations of irregular particle-detector ge- ometry with distance-weighted graph networks

S. R. Qasim, J. Kieseler, Y. Iiyama, et al. “Learn- ing representations of irregular particle-detector ge- ometry with distance-weighted graph networks”. In: Eur. Phys. J. C79.7 (2019), p. 608.doi:10.1140/ epjc / s10052 - 019 - 7113 - 9. arXiv:1902 . 07987 [physics.data-an]

2019

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Object condensation: one-stage grid- free multi-object reconstruction in physics detectors, graph, and image data

J. Kieseler. “Object condensation: one-stage grid- free multi-object reconstruction in physics detectors, graph, and image data”. In:Eur. Phys. J. C80.9 (2020), p. 886.doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052- 020- 08461-2. arXiv:2002.03605 [physics.data-an]

work page doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052- 2020

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End-to-end multi-particle reconstruction in high occupancy imaging calorimeters with graph neural networks

S. R. Qasim, N. Chernyavskaya, J. Kieseler, et al. “End-to-end multi-particle reconstruction in high occupancy imaging calorimeters with graph neural networks”. In:Eur. Phys. J. C82.8 (2022), p. 753. doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-022-10665- 7. arXiv: 2204.01681 [physics.ins-det]

work page doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-022-10665- 2022

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Multi- particle reconstruction in the High Granular- ity Calorimeter using object condensation and graph neural networks

S. R. Qasim, K. Long, J. Kieseler, et al. “Multi- particle reconstruction in the High Granular- ity Calorimeter using object condensation and graph neural networks”. In:EPJ Web of Con- ferences. Vol. 251. 2021, p. 03072.doi:10 . 1051/epjconf/202125103072. arXiv:2106.01832 [physics.ins-det]

work page arXiv 2021

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Towards particle flow event reconstruction at the Future Cir- cular Collider with GNNs

D. Garcia, G. Krˇ zmanc, P. Zehetner, et al. “Towards particle flow event reconstruction at the Future Cir- cular Collider with GNNs”. In:NeurIPS 2023 Work- shop: New Frontiers in Graph Learning. 2023.url: https://openreview.net/forum?id=PYcp183GBL. 11

2023