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arxiv: 2605.22582 · v1 · pith:JJNXNCDDnew · submitted 2026-05-21 · ❄️ cond-mat.mes-hall · cond-mat.supr-con· quant-ph

Quantum Batteries in two-dimensional material-based Josephson Junctions

V. Varrica , G. Gemme , F.M.D. Pellegrino , E. Paladino , M. Sassetti , D. Ferraro This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-22 03:50 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ❄️ cond-mat.mes-hall cond-mat.supr-conquant-ph
keywords quantum batteryJosephson junctiongrapheneAndreev bound statesDicke modellongitudinal couplingquantum energy storagesuperconducting phase
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0 comments X

The pith

Extra interaction terms in a graphene Josephson junction boost quantum battery energy storage beyond the standard Dicke model.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper examines a solid-state quantum battery built from a two-dimensional material Josephson junction inductively coupled to a resonator, taking graphene as the example material. Andreev bound states inside the junction function as independent two-level systems that can absorb energy through both single-photon and two-photon resonances. The distinctive feature is that the link between the resonator flux and the supercurrent flowing across the junction produces longitudinal coupling terms absent from the usual Dicke model. These extra terms increase the amount of energy the battery can hold when the device parameters are chosen in the right range. The same architecture also permits charging by simply adjusting the phase difference across the junction rather than driving the resonator.

Core claim

The coupling between the LC-circuit flux and the supercurrent through the junction gives rise to peculiar longitudinal interaction terms that have no counterpart in the conventional Dicke model. These additional couplings can enhance energy storage for a proper range of parameters. The proposed architecture also enables an alternative but equivalent charging protocol that relies on tuning the superconducting phase difference across the junction.

What carries the argument

The longitudinal interaction terms produced by the direct coupling of LC-circuit flux to the supercurrent in the two-dimensional Josephson junction.

If this is right

  • Energy storage capacity exceeds what the conventional Dicke model predicts for suitable choices of coupling strength and detuning.
  • Both single-photon and two-photon resonant processes become available for charging the battery.
  • The battery can be charged by adjusting the superconducting phase difference across the junction instead of external driving.
  • The Andreev bound states remain non-interacting and non-degenerate, preserving the simple two-level picture.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same flux-supercurrent mechanism could be tested in other two-dimensional materials to identify which one maximizes the storage gain.
  • Integration with existing superconducting circuits might become simpler because the charging protocol uses only the junction phase.
  • If the enhancement survives decoherence, the design could inform compact quantum energy buffers for larger quantum processors.

Load-bearing premise

Andreev bound states in the junction act as non-interacting, energetically non-degenerate two-level systems.

What would settle it

An experiment that tunes the device parameters into the predicted optimal range and measures no increase in stored energy relative to a standard Dicke-model calculation would disprove the enhancement claim.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.22582 by D. Ferraro, E. Paladino, F.M.D. Pellegrino, G. Gemme, M. Sassetti, V. Varrica.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Scheme of a resonant circuit (red), described as a lumped-element LC circuit with an induc [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p002_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: (a) Top view of a Josephson junction formed by graphene covered by two superconducting leads (blue). The uncovered grey region represents the graphene stripe in the normal phase. In this picture, L represents the junction channel length along the x-direction and W is the width of the device along the y-direction. (b) The energy splitting of each ABSs pair evaluated at ϕ/π = 0.46 (pink), ϕ/π = 0.53 (orange)… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Energy E (g) B stored in the QB system (in units of Nℏωr) as a function of the time and the superconducting phase difference ϕ, setting g = 0.1 (a) and g = 0.3 (b). In both panels, using the same scheme of colors used in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Long-time behaviour of E (g) B (solid lines) evaluated at ϕ/π = 0.53 (a) and at ϕ/π = 0.76 (b). In both panels, time is expressed in units of ℏ/∆0, and the stationary values E¯ (g) B (dashed lines) are denoted in light green for g = 0.1 and in cyan for g = 0.3. (c)–(d) Bar plots illustrating the decomposition of the initial state |ψ(0)⟩, over the relevant subset of the eigenbasis {|Ej ⟩}, corresponding to … view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Comparison between the time evolution of the energy stored in the QB system (in units of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Time evolution of the energy stored in the QB system (expressed in units of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Time evolution of the energy stored in the QB system (in units of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Comparison of time evolution of the energy stored in the QB system (in units of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: (a)–(b) Time evolution of the difference between the energies stored in the QB system (in units of Nℏωr) by employing the charging protocols in Eq. (9), E (g) B , and Eq. (24), E (ϕ) B , respectively. (c)–(d) Comparison of the time evolution of the energy stored in the QB system (in units of Nℏωr), evaluated for ϕ/π = 0.53 (two-photon resonance condition), employing the charging protocols based on coupling… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We investigate the solid-state implementation of a Dicke-like quantum battery consisting of a two-dimensional material-based Josephson junction inductively coupled to a resonator, using graphene as a representative example. In this configuration, Andreev bound states naturally act as non-interacting, energetically non-degenerate two-level systems, and the setup allows for both single-photon and two-photon resonant processes. The coupling between the LC-circuit flux and the supercurrent through the junction gives rise to peculiar longitudinal interaction terms that have no counterpart in the conventional Dicke model. These additional couplings can enhance energy storage for a proper range of parameters. The proposed architecture also enables an alternative, but equivalent, charging protocol that relies on tuning the superconducting phase difference across the junction.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript proposes a solid-state realization of a Dicke-like quantum battery based on a two-dimensional material Josephson junction (exemplified by graphene) inductively coupled to an LC resonator. Andreev bound states are modeled as non-interacting, energetically non-degenerate two-level systems supporting both single- and two-photon resonant processes. The coupling of the resonator flux to the junction supercurrent generates longitudinal interaction terms absent from the conventional Dicke model; these terms are claimed to enhance energy storage for suitable parameter ranges. An alternative but equivalent charging protocol based on tuning the superconducting phase difference across the junction is also introduced.

Significance. If the effective model holds, the work supplies a concrete, experimentally accessible platform that merges established Josephson-junction and circuit-QED physics with 2D materials. The identification of longitudinal couplings that have no direct counterpart in the standard Dicke model, together with the phase-tuning charging route, constitutes a genuine extension that could improve charging efficiency and storage capacity. The proposal is falsifiable through existing fabrication and spectroscopy techniques and therefore merits attention from the mesoscopic-superconductivity and quantum-thermodynamics communities.

major comments (2)
  1. [§II] §II (effective Hamiltonian): The central claim that Andreev bound states act as non-interacting, energetically non-degenerate two-level systems is load-bearing for the entire analysis. In graphene Josephson junctions the Dirac spectrum together with finite junction width supports multiple transverse modes whose phase-dependent energies can lie close together or hybridize; the manuscript must demonstrate explicitly (via derivation or numerical diagonalization of the Bogoliubov–de Gennes equation) that these modes remain non-degenerate and non-interacting under the stated parameter regime.
  2. [§IV] §IV (energy-storage analysis): The assertion that the additional longitudinal couplings enhance stored energy “for a proper range of parameters” is stated without a quantitative scan or comparison against the pure Dicke case. A figure or table showing the stored energy versus coupling strength, detuning, and number of modes, with and without the longitudinal terms, is required to substantiate the enhancement claim.
minor comments (2)
  1. [§III] The definition of the longitudinal coupling strength g_∥ should be written explicitly in terms of the junction critical current and resonator inductance to allow direct comparison with experimental values.
  2. [Fig. 2] Figure 2 (schematic of the circuit) would benefit from labeling the flux variable Φ and the phase difference φ to match the notation used in the Hamiltonian.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive and detailed report. The comments highlight important points that will strengthen the manuscript. We address each major comment below and will incorporate the suggested revisions.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [§II] §II (effective Hamiltonian): The central claim that Andreev bound states act as non-interacting, energetically non-degenerate two-level systems is load-bearing for the entire analysis. In graphene Josephson junctions the Dirac spectrum together with finite junction width supports multiple transverse modes whose phase-dependent energies can lie close together or hybridize; the manuscript must demonstrate explicitly (via derivation or numerical diagonalization of the Bogoliubov–de Gennes equation) that these modes remain non-degenerate and non-interacting under the stated parameter regime.

    Authors: We agree that an explicit demonstration is required to support the modeling assumptions. In the revised manuscript we will add a new appendix containing both an analytical derivation from the Bogoliubov–de Gennes equation for a graphene Josephson junction and numerical diagonalization results for representative parameter values (junction width, doping level, and phase bias) that confirm the transverse modes remain energetically non-degenerate and non-interacting in the regime considered. This will be cross-referenced in §II. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [§IV] §IV (energy-storage analysis): The assertion that the additional longitudinal couplings enhance stored energy “for a proper range of parameters” is stated without a quantitative scan or comparison against the pure Dicke case. A figure or table showing the stored energy versus coupling strength, detuning, and number of modes, with and without the longitudinal terms, is required to substantiate the enhancement claim.

    Authors: We acknowledge that a direct quantitative comparison is needed. In the revised version we will include a new figure in §IV that displays the stored energy as a function of resonator–junction coupling strength and detuning, for both the full model (including longitudinal terms) and the pure Dicke model, across a range of mode numbers. The figure will explicitly highlight the parameter window where the longitudinal couplings provide a measurable enhancement, thereby substantiating the claim. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity in derivation of longitudinal couplings for 2D-material Josephson junction quantum battery

full rationale

The paper constructs an effective Hamiltonian starting from the standard inductive coupling of an LC resonator to a Josephson junction whose Andreev bound states are modeled as non-interacting two-level systems; the longitudinal interaction terms arise directly from the flux-supercurrent coupling in the circuit Lagrangian and are analyzed for their effect on energy storage by solving the resulting dynamics or master equation over parameter ranges. No step reduces a claimed prediction to a fitted input by construction, invokes a self-citation as the sole justification for a uniqueness theorem, or renames a known result; the alternative charging protocol via phase tuning is shown equivalent through explicit transformation of the same Hamiltonian. The modeling assumption is stated explicitly rather than smuggled in, leaving the subsequent derivation self-contained against external benchmarks of circuit QED and Josephson physics.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The proposal rests on standard assumptions from superconducting mesoscopic physics and the Dicke model without introducing new free parameters or invented entities in the abstract.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Andreev bound states act as non-interacting, energetically non-degenerate two-level systems
    Directly stated in the abstract as the basis for mapping the junction to a Dicke-like battery.

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Reference graph

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