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Dark Matter Energy Deposition and Production from the Table-Top to the Cosmos

T0 review · 0 major / 2 minor · reviewed 2026-05-25 · grok-4.3

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Pith's one-line read Nongravitational interactions between dark matter and the Standard Model would reshape its production in the early universe and collider experiments while enabling unexpected energy deposition into ordinary matter.

desk verdict Liu's thesis collects several independent DM studies with the DarkHistory code as the clearest practical addition, but it functions more as a compilation than a single focused advance. read the letter →

arxiv 1907.04324 v1 pith:OSGIHP26 submitted 2019-07-09 hep-ph astro-ph.CO

Hongwan Liu This is my paper · ORCID
classification hep-phastro-ph.CO
keywords darkmatternongravitationalinteractionsfreezeoutmechanismcosmicreionization21-cmcosmologyaxionsearchenergydepositionvectorportal
topics Dark Matter
open problems Dark Matter
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper argues that if dark matter possesses nongravitational interactions with the Standard Model, these couplings would change how dark matter is produced both cosmologically and at colliders, and would permit new channels for energy transfer to ordinary particles. It advances this view by detailing six concrete developments: a 3-to-2 freezeout process in a vector portal model, the effects of dark sector bound states on detection, a cavity-based axion interferometry technique, an assessment of dark matter's role in reionization, limits from 21-cm data, and an improved numerical code called DarkHistory for tracking ionization and thermal evolution. A sympathetic reader would care because the work connects particle-level interactions to observable signatures that range from laboratory scales to the full history of the universe.

What carries the argument

Nongravitational interactions between dark matter and the Standard Model, which enable altered production mechanisms such as 3-to-2 freezeout and new energy deposition pathways tracked by the DarkHistory code.

What would settle it

A measurement of the cosmic ionization and thermal history that shows no deviation from standard recombination calculations, even after applying the improved DarkHistory treatment of exotic energy injection, would indicate that the proposed deposition effects are absent or negligible.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

If such an interaction exists, it would have profound implications on how dark matter is produced in both the early universe and in collider experiments. In addition, it would also allow dark matter to deposit energy into Standard Model particles in unexpected ways. This thesis details some recent progress made in understanding these implications, including a new freezeout mechanism for thermal dark matter dominated by a 3-to-2 process within a vector portal dark sector model, a study of how the existence of dark sector bound states can influence collider, direct and indirect searches for dark matter, a new axion dark matter interferometric search using a cavity that is sensitive to the axon

Load-bearing premise

Dark matter possesses nongravitational interactions with the Standard Model.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • A 3-to-2 annihilation process can dominate thermal dark matter freezeout in vector portal dark sector models.
  • Dark sector bound states can influence signals in collider, direct detection, and indirect detection experiments.
  • An interferometric cavity setup provides a new search channel for axion dark matter via rotation of linearly polarized light.
  • Dark matter annihilation and decay can contribute to cosmic reionization.
  • 21-cm cosmology yields new constraints on dark matter annihilation rates and decay lifetimes.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The 3-to-2 freezeout mechanism could produce relic densities that differ from standard 2-to-2 calculations and might be tested against future collider data.
  • Improved energy deposition tracking may alter how potential anomalies in cosmic microwave background spectra are interpreted.
  • The axion cavity search and 21-cm limits could be combined to cross-check interaction strengths for different dark matter candidates.
  • These results point toward opportunities for linking laboratory experiments directly to early-universe observables through shared interaction parameters.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

0 major / 2 minor

Summary. This PhD thesis compiles six self-contained studies exploring the implications of possible nongravitational dark matter-Standard Model interactions. The contributions include a new 3-to-2 freezeout mechanism in a vector portal model, analysis of dark sector bound states on collider/direct/indirect searches, a cavity-based axion interferometric search via polarization rotation, an assessment of dark matter annihilation/decay contributions to reionization, new 21-cm constraints on annihilation rates and decay lifetimes, and the DarkHistory code for improved computation of ionization and thermal histories with exotic energy injection.

Significance. If the individual results hold, the thesis advances dark matter phenomenology by providing new production mechanisms, experimental search strategies, and computational tools spanning collider to cosmological scales. The explicitly conditional framing strengthens the work by making each contribution independently falsifiable and useful even in the absence of confirmed interactions.

minor comments (2)
  1. The abstract and structure indicate each study is self-contained; for journal submission of individual chapters, add explicit cross-references between related sections (e.g., linking the 3-to-2 freezeout to bound-state effects) to improve readability.
  2. Ensure that the DarkHistory code release includes example input files and validation against existing codes (e.g., for standard recombination) to facilitate reproducibility, as this is listed as a central contribution.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

0 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their positive summary of the thesis, recognition of its significance across multiple scales, and recommendation for minor revision. No specific major comments were listed in the report.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity

full rationale

The thesis presents six independent implication studies (new freezeout mechanism, bound-state effects, axion interferometry, reionization assessment, 21-cm constraints, and DarkHistory code) all explicitly conditional on the existence of nongravitational DM-SM interactions. No derivation chain, equation, or quantitative claim is presented as an unconditional prediction that reduces by construction to a fitted parameter, self-defined quantity, or load-bearing self-citation within the work. Each result is framed as a conditional consequence whose internal logic stands independently of whether the motivating interactions are realized, making the document self-contained against external benchmarks with no circular steps.

Assumptions & free parameters 0 free parameters · 0 assumptions · 0 invented entities

Abstract only; no free parameters, axioms, or invented entities are specified in sufficient detail to populate the ledger.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Dark Matter Energy Deposition and Production from the Table-Top to the Cosmos." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/OSGIHP26

@misc{pith2026190704324,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Dark Matter Energy Deposition and Production from the Table-Top to the Cosmos},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/OSGIHP26}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:1907.04324}
}
read the original abstract

The discovery of nongravitational interactions between dark matter and the Standard Model would be an important step in unraveling the nature of dark matter. If such an interaction exists, it would have profound implications on how dark matter is produced in both the early universe and in collider experiments. In addition, it would also allow dark matter to deposit energy into Standard Model particles in unexpected ways. This thesis details some recent progress made in understanding these implications, including (i) a new freezeout mechanism for thermal dark matter dominated by a 3-to-2 process within a vector portal dark sector model; (ii) a study of how the existence of dark sector bound states can influence collider, direct and indirect searches for dark matter; (iii) a new axion dark matter interferometric search using a cavity that is sensitive to the axion-induced rotation of linearly polarized light; (iv) a definitive assessment of the potential contribution of dark matter annihilation and decay to cosmic reionization; (v) new constraints on dark matter annihilation rates and decay lifetimes from 21-cm cosmology, and (vi) a new numerical code, DarkHistory, which significantly improves the computation of the ionization and thermal histories of the universe in the presence of exotic sources of energy injection. These novel ideas span length scales ranging from table-top experiments to the entire cosmos, and represent just a few of the myriad of ways in which dark matter may yet surprise us.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 1907.04324 by the authors.

Figure 1-1
Figure 1-1. The CMB TT anisotropy power spectrum for dark matter densities [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_1-1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2-1
Figure 2-1. Schematic description of Not-Forbidden Dark Matter (NFDM) paradigm. I) effective operators for the 3 → 2 scattering processes; II) explicit model described in the text: vector-portal dark matter model. focused on strongly coupled theories with scalar DM [50, 163], whereas NFDM is a more generic mechanism: it is potentially important in any situation where 2 → 2 annihilations within the dark sector are kinematically … view at source ↗
Figure 2-2
Figure 2-2. Relic density in the NFDM scenario, assuming kinetic equilibrium of the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p045_2-2.png] view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (57 more)
Figure 2-3
Figure 2-3. Figure 2-3: Relic density in the NFDM scenario, assuming kinetic equilibrium of the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p046_2-3.png]
Figure 2-4
Figure 2-4. Figure 2-4: NFDM, secluded hidden sector. The evolution of energy density of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p049_2-4.png]
Figure 2-5
Figure 2-5. Figure 2-5: NFDM, secluded hidden sector. Contours of the observed present-day [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p050_2-5.png]
Figure 2-6
Figure 2-6. Figure 2-6: Constraints in the 𝑚𝜒-𝜖 plane for the case of 𝑚𝐴′/𝑚𝜒 = 1.8, with 𝛼 ′ chosen to produce the observed relic density. The allowed region is shown in white. The upper-left shaded region (red) indicates where freezeout is dominated by the conventional 𝜒𝜒¯ → 𝑒 +𝑒 − annihil…
Figure 3-1
Figure 3-1. Figure 3-1: Feynman diagrams for relevant dark sector processes at colliders. These [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p060_3-1.png]
Figure 3-2
Figure 3-2. Figure 3-2: Direct detection Feynman diagrams for inelastic DM models, with (left) [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p069_3-2.png]
Figure 3-3
Figure 3-3. Figure 3-3: The production cross section times branching ratio into leptons for [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p080_3-3.png]
Figure 3-4
Figure 3-4. Figure 3-4: Spectrum of particles in the pseudo-Dirac model. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p083_3-4.png]
Figure 3-5
Figure 3-5. Figure 3-5: Spectrum of particles in the triple Higgs model. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p088_3-5.png]
Figure 3-6
Figure 3-6. Figure 3-6: 95% confidence limits in the 𝑚𝜒 − 𝑚𝑉,0 plane of the pseudo-Dirac model. 𝑚𝑉,0 and 𝑚1,0 are the unmixed masses of the mediator in each respective model. All resonance calculations are made using the full mixing calculation. Experimental constraints from mono-jet + MET …
Figure 3-7
Figure 3-7. Figure 3-7: 95% confidence limits in the 𝑚𝜒 − 𝑚1,0 plane for the triple Higgs model. 𝑚𝑉,0 and 𝑚1,0 are the unmixed masses of the mediator in each respective model. All resonance calculations are made using the full mixing calculation. Experimental constraints from mono-jet + MET…
Figure 3-8
Figure 3-8. Figure 3-8: 95% confidence limits in the 𝑚𝑉,0 − 𝑦𝐷 plane of the pseudo-Dirac model, similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p098_3-8.png]
Figure 3-9
Figure 3-9. Figure 3-9: 95% confidence limits in the 𝑚1,0 − 𝛼𝐷 plane of the triple Higgs model, similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p099_3-9.png]
Figure 3-10
Figure 3-10. Figure 3-10: Comparison of predicted DM annihilation rates (including Sommerfeld [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p100_3-10.png]
Figure 3-11
Figure 3-11. Figure 3-11: Comparison of predicted DM annihilation rates (including Sommerfeld [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p101_3-11.png]
Figure 3-12
Figure 3-12. Figure 3-12: Indirect detection and overclosure limits on the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p102_3-12.png]
Figure 3-13
Figure 3-13. Figure 3-13: Indirect detection and overclosure limits on the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p103_3-13.png]
Figure 4-1
Figure 4-1. Figure 4-1: Summary of axion interferometry. A horizontally polarized laser fed [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p114_4-1.png]
Figure 4-2
Figure 4-2. Figure 4-2: Schematic of the ADBC experiment. The red optical path is that of the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p117_4-2.png]
Figure 4-3
Figure 4-3. Figure 4-3: Expected ADBC limits on the axion coupling [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p119_4-3.png]
Figure 5-1
Figure 5-1. Figure 5-1: The 95% excluded cross section based on Planck’s upper limit given by Eq. (5.8) for (left) 𝜒𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − and (right) 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 𝑠-wave annihilation. 132 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p132_5-1.png]
Figure 5-2
Figure 5-2. Figure 5-2: The effective DM density as a function of redshift (relevant for [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p144_5-2.png]
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-3. Figure 5-3: The effective DM density × velocity as a function of redshift (equivalent to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p147_5-3.png]
Figure 5-4
Figure 5-4. Figure 5-4: Integrated free electron fraction 𝑥𝑒 and IGM temperature 𝑇𝑚 for 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 𝑠-wave annihilation for 𝑚𝜒 = 100 MeV with (from bottom to top): no DM; ⟨𝜎𝑣⟩ = 3 × 10−27 cm3 s −1 ; 3 × 10−26 cm3 s −1 and 3 × 10−25 cm3 s −1 respectively. The CMB temperature is shown as a dashed…
Figure 5-5
Figure 5-5. Figure 5-5: DM contribution to reionization for 𝜒𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − (left) and 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 (right) 𝑠-wave annihilation, benchmark scenario. The hatched regions correspond to parameter space ruled out by the CMB power spectrum constraints as measured by Planck (red) and optical depth constra…
Figure 5-6
Figure 5-6. Figure 5-6: DM contribution to reionization for 𝜒𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − (left) and 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 (right) 𝑠-wave annihilation assuming a different structure formation prescription. The color density plot shows the DM contribution to 𝑥𝑒 just prior to reionization at 𝑧 = 6 assuming an NFW profile wi…
Figure 5-7
Figure 5-7. Figure 5-7: DM contribution to reionization for 𝜒𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − (left) and 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 (right) 𝑠-wave annihilation, assuming a different reionization scenario.The color den￾sity plot shows the DM contribution to 𝑥𝑒 just prior to reionization at 𝑧 = 10, with contours (black, dashed) show…
Figure 5-8
Figure 5-8. Figure 5-8: Integrated free electron fraction 𝑥𝑒 and IGM temperature 𝑇𝑚 for 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 𝑝-wave annihilation for 𝑚𝜒 = 100 MeV with (from bottom to top): (blue) no DM; (𝜎𝑣)ref = 3 × 10−24 cm3 s −1 , (𝜎𝑣)ref = 3 × 10−23 cm3 s −1 and (𝜎𝑣)ref = 3 × 10−22 cm3 s −1 respectively. The CMB te…
Figure 5-9
Figure 5-9. Figure 5-9: DM contribution to reionization for 𝜒𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − (left) and 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 (right) 𝑝-wave annihilation, benchmark scenario. The hatched regions correspond to parameter space ruled out by 𝑇𝑚(𝑧 = 4.80) < 10 000 K (red) and 𝑇𝑚(𝑧 = 6.08) < 18 621 K (orange) respectively. The col…
Figure 5-10
Figure 5-10. Figure 5-10: DM contribution to reionization for 𝜒𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − (left) and 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 (right) 𝑝-wave annihilation assuming a different reionization scenario. The color den￾sity plot shows the DM contribution to 𝑥𝑒 just prior to reionization at 𝑧 = 10, with contours (black, dashed) sho…
Figure 5-11
Figure 5-11. Figure 5-11: DM contribution to reionization for 𝜒𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − (left) and 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 (right) 𝑝-wave annihilation, together with limits from the galactic diffuse background. The color density plot shows the DM contribution to 𝑥𝑒 just prior to reionization at 𝑧 = 6, with contours (blac…
Figure 5-12
Figure 5-12. Figure 5-12: Integrated free electron fraction 𝑥𝑒 and IGM temperature 𝑇𝑚 for 𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 decays (𝑚𝜒 = 100 MeV) with (from bottom to top): no DM, 𝜏𝜒 = 1025 s, 1024 s and 1023s respectively. The CMB temperature is shown as a dashed line for reference. No reionization is assumed. 180 […
Figure 5-13
Figure 5-13. Figure 5-13: DM contribution to reionization for 𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − (left) and 𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 (right) decays, benchmark scenario. The hatched regions correspond to parame￾ter space ruled out by the optical depth (red) and the IGM temperature constraint 𝑇𝑚(𝑧 = 4.80) < 10 000 K (orange) respectiv…
Figure 5-14
Figure 5-14. Figure 5-14: DM contribution to reionization for 𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − decays, benchmark scenario, including constraints from the galactic diffuse background (red contour, hatched) derived from [323]. The color density plot shows the DM contribution to 𝑥𝑒 just prior to reionization at 𝑧 = …
Figure 5-15
Figure 5-15. Figure 5-15: Integrated free electron fraction 𝑥𝑒 and IGM temperature 𝑇𝑚 for 𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − decays (𝑚𝜒 = 100 MeV) with: (red) no DM; (blue) 𝜏𝜒 = 1.5 × 1025 s with the default 𝑓𝑐(𝑧); (orange) 1.5 × 1025 s with 𝑓𝑐(𝑧) computed using 𝑥𝑒(𝑧) obtained from the default 𝑓𝑐(𝑧) shown in blue. …
Figure 5-16
Figure 5-16. Figure 5-16: The maximum free electron fraction 𝑥𝑒 just prior to reionization consis￾tent with all constraints used in this chapter for 𝑠-wave annihilations (blue), 𝑝-wave annihilations (yellow) and decays (green) into 𝑒 +𝑒 − (left) and 𝛾𝛾 (right). 184 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/…
Figure 6-1
Figure 6-1. Figure 6-1: Example thermal (left) and ionization (right) histories, for [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p189_6-1.png]
Figure 6-2
Figure 6-2. Figure 6-2: Decay lifetime constraints with an additional 21-cm source with [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p191_6-2.png]
Figure 6-3
Figure 6-3. Figure 6-3: Annihilation cross section constraints with an additional 21-cm source [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p192_6-3.png]
Figure 6-4
Figure 6-4. Figure 6-4: Decay lifetime constraints for non-standard recombination as a function [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p197_6-4.png]
Figure 6-5
Figure 6-5. Figure 6-5: Annihilation cross section constraints for non-standard recombination as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p198_6-5.png]
Figure 6-6
Figure 6-6. Figure 6-6: Minimum decay lifetime (left) and maximum annihilation cross section [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p199_6-6.png]
Figure 6-7
Figure 6-7. Figure 6-7: The change in ionization histories for 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 annihilation, with (yellow) and without (blue) Rutherford cooling, with respect to the standard ionization history (with no DM energy injection), 𝑥𝑒,std. Here, 𝑚𝜒 = 100 keV and 𝑓𝜒,int = 0.01. The chosen value of ⟨𝜎𝑣⟩ = 6…
Figure 6-8
Figure 6-8. Figure 6-8: Thermal (left) and ionization (right) histories with [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p205_6-8.png]
Figure 6-9
Figure 6-9. Figure 6-9: Rutherford cooling constraints on the minimum decay lifetime for [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p208_6-9.png]
Figure 6-10
Figure 6-10. Figure 6-10: Rutherford cooling 𝑠-wave annihilation constraints for 𝜒𝜒 → 𝑒 +𝑒 − (left) and 𝜒𝜒 → 𝛾𝛾 (right) from the matter temperature 𝑇𝑚(𝑧 = 17.2) = 5.2 K (solid), 𝑓𝜒,int = 0.01. Limits from the Planck measurement of the CMB power spectrum are also shown up to 𝜎0 = 𝜎0,td(𝑧 = 60…
Figure 6-11
Figure 6-11. Figure 6-11: Constraints on the millicharged DM, with an additional source of DM [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p212_6-11.png]
Figure 6-12
Figure 6-12. Figure 6-12: Lower limits on the DM decay lifetime (upper panels) and upper limits [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p217_6-12.png]
Figure 7-1
Figure 7-1. Figure 7-1: Flowchart showing schematically how the calculation of ionization and [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p226_7-1.png]
Figure 7-2
Figure 7-2. Figure 7-2: Photon (left) and 𝑒 +𝑒 − (right) spectra produced by a single annihilation event, 𝜒𝜒 → 𝑏𝑏, with 𝑚𝜒 = 50 GeV. These spectra are based on the raw data provided by pppc4dmid. bbbar_noBR = main.evolve( DM_process=’swave’, mDM=50e9, sigmav=2e-26, primary=’b’, start_rs=300…
Figure 7-3
Figure 7-3. Figure 7-3: Matter temperature 𝑇𝑚 (left) and hydrogen ionization fraction 𝑥HII (right) solved in the presence of dark matter annihilation into 𝑏 ¯𝑏 pairs using DarkHistory. Eq. (7.1) is solved without dark matter energy injection to produce the baseline histories (black, dashed)…
Figure 7-4
Figure 7-4. Figure 7-4: Temperature (left) and ionization (right) histories including the effects [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p260_7-4.png]
Figure 7-5
Figure 7-5. Figure 7-5: Contour plots of the fractional change in temperature [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p263_7-5.png]
Figure 7-6
Figure 7-6. Figure 7-6: The minimum dark matter decay lifetime (top row) and maximum anni [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p264_7-6.png]
Figure 7-7
Figure 7-7. Figure 7-7: Temperature (left) and free electron fraction [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p266_7-7.png]
Figure 7-8
Figure 7-8. Figure 7-8: Temperature (left) and free electron fraction (right) as a function of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p267_7-8.png]
Figure 7-9
Figure 7-9. Figure 7-9: Temperature (left) and hydrogen ionization (right) history of the uni [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p268_7-9.png]

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