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arxiv: 2605.16501 · v1 · pith:GFKICAQQnew · submitted 2026-05-15 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Co-evolution of Supermassive Black Holes and their Host L* galaxies: implications for Milky Way and M31

Salvador E. Grimozzi , Maria Emilia De Rossi , Andreea S. Font This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-20 15:54 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords supermassive black holesgalaxy mergersL* galaxiesMilky WayM31black hole mass scattergalaxy morphologycosmological simulations
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The pith

Merger history explains why some L* galaxies host more massive supermassive black holes than others.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper tracks the evolution of L* galaxies in cosmological simulations by splitting them into two groups according to the ratio of central black hole mass to galaxy stellar mass. Galaxies that end up with high ratios and galaxies that end up with low ratios look similar at redshift two but then diverge. Those on the high-ratio track experience more mergers, form stars earlier, quench star formation sooner through stronger feedback, and finish as elliptical systems with heavy black holes. Those on the low-ratio track retain more gas, keep forming stars longer, and remain disk-like with lighter black holes. The simulations reproduce the observed scatter in black hole masses and morphologies and point to merger activity as the main driver of that scatter.

Core claim

Galaxies with more active merger histories contain more massive black holes at the present day and tend to be elliptical, while galaxies with more quiescent histories have less massive black holes and tend to be disc-like. Mergers boost black hole growth through higher gas accretion rates and direct black hole-black hole mergers, but the balance differs: high-BH galaxies grow their black holes almost entirely by gas accretion, whereas low-BH galaxies grow them through a combination of gas accretion and mergers.

What carries the argument

Classification of simulated L* galaxies into low-BH and high-BH samples using the ratio of central black hole mass to galaxy stellar mass, then following their separate evolutionary tracks from high redshift to the present.

If this is right

  • More frequent mergers produce both heavier central black holes and elliptical morphologies in L* galaxies.
  • Black hole growth in high-BH galaxies occurs almost entirely through gas accretion, while low-BH galaxies rely on both accretion and mergers.
  • The scatter in observed black hole masses at fixed galaxy mass traces differences in past merger activity.
  • The Milky Way and M31 could host black holes of different masses simply because their merger histories differed.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Black hole mass could be used as a rough indicator of a Milky Way-mass galaxy's merger history when direct merger records are unavailable.
  • The same divergence seen at low redshift should already be detectable in the gas content and star-formation rates of L* galaxies at redshift one to two.
  • If the result holds, surveys that measure both black hole mass and morphology in large samples of nearby galaxies could test whether the two properties remain tightly linked outside the simulated volumes.

Load-bearing premise

The simulations correctly capture the relative efficiency of gas accretion, black hole mergers, and feedback without systematic bias tied to merger history.

What would settle it

A direct count of the number and timing of mergers experienced by local L* galaxies with measured black hole masses, or a measurement of the fraction of black hole mass growth that occurred through black hole-black hole mergers versus gas accretion.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.16501 by Andreea S. Font, Maria Emilia De Rossi, Salvador E. Grimozzi.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Stellar spin (𝜆★) versus disc-to-total mass fraction, 𝐷/𝑇, com￾puted by Thob et al. 2019), for galaxies with 𝑀★ > 109.5 M⊙ in the EAGLE Recal-L025N0752 run. The dashed line represents the median relation and the error bars the respective 25th and 75th percentiles. 2009). To calculate the mass loss and the resulting chemical com￾position, the model combines the nucleosynthetic yields of Marigo (2001) and Po… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: 𝑀BH − 𝑀★ relation for simulations versus observations. ARTEMIS galaxies are shown in the left panel, with diamond symbols, and EAGLE galaxies on the right, with circles. Observational data from Greene et al. (2020) (and references therein) are shown with open triangles, coloured red for early-type and blue for late-type galaxies. The symbols for simulated galaxies are colour-coded by their stellar spin, 𝜆★… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Correlations between 𝑀BH and average galaxy properties at 𝑧 = 0 in the ARTEMIS (diamonds) and EAGLE (circles) simulations. From top-left to bottom-right, we show the 𝑀BH correlations with 𝑀★, 𝜆★, average galaxy stellar age and the fraction of star-forming gas. Systems with low, intermediate and high 𝑓BH values are coloured in blue, black and orange, respectively. The squares with error bars in the top-left… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Evolution of median properties for both HBH (solid orange line with diamonds) and LBH (solid blue line with diamonds) galaxies in ARTEMIS. The shaded regions enclose the corresponding 25th and 75th percentiles. Dotted lines trace the evolution of two individual galaxies in the LBH (G25, blue) and HBH (G22, orange) samples. First row, in order from left to right show: the stellar mass, star-forming gas frac… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Evolution of median properties for both low 𝜆★ (solid red line with diamonds) and high 𝜆★ (solid blue line with diamonds) galaxies in ARTEMIS. The shaded regions enclose the corresponding 25th and 75th percentiles. For the nomenclature, see [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Upper panels: cumulative mass accreted via mergers for different galaxy components. Bottom panels: cumulative accreted mass accreted for the same components shown in the upper panels, but normalized by the maximum mass reached in the corresponding component by each galaxy. From left to right: dark matter mass, stellar mass, BH mass, and baryonic mass. Symbols, line styles and colours follow the same conven… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Left panel: the median number of satellite galaxies (and scatter) in LBH and HBH hosts across redshift. Only satellites with 𝑀∗ ≥ 106 M⊙ are considered. Middle panel: the median number of satellites with black holes in the two samples. Right panel: mean of the total black hole mass in satellites hosting BHs. Symbols, line styles and colours follow the same convention as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fi… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Merger trees of galaxies G22 and G25. Each symbol represents a progenitor at a given 𝑧 (left axes) of the galaxy at the top of the tree. Each gray line along a tree branch connects a progenitor to its immediate descendant at lower 𝑧. The main branch (i.e., the main progenitor of the respective galaxy) is shown on the right, highlighting the major mergers. Symbols are colour-coded according to 𝜆★, with size… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: The evolution of gas accretion rate onto BHs (left panels, left vertical axes, solid lines) and the growth of BH mass via accretion through BH mergers (right panels, left vertical axes, solid lines) for galaxies G22 (upper panels) and G25 (bottom panels). Also shown is the evolution of 𝑙merger parameter (all panels, right vertical axes, dotted lines). Mergers correspond to peaks in 𝑙merger. Massive mergers… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We investigate the origin of the scatter in the supermassive black hole (BH) masses for galaxies in the L* regime, using the ARTEMIS and EAGLE simulations. By classifying galaxies based on their central BH / galaxy stellar masses ratios, we follow the evolution of galaxies with the lowest and highest such ratios (denoted LBH and HBH, respectively). We find that the properties of these two galaxy samples are comparable at z ~ 2 but diverge significantly towards lower redshifts. Galaxies with less massive BHs were able to maintain higher gas fractions and sustained star formation during their evolution, whereas those with more massive BHs formed stars earlier, grew BHs faster and experienced more efficient feedback and subsequent quenching. The simulations broadly match the observed scatter in the BH masses and galaxy morphologies in the L* regime and explain the origin of this scatter in terms of differences between merger histories. Galaxies with more active merger histories contain more massive BHs at present time and tend to be elliptical, while galaxies with more quiescent histories have less massive BHs and tend to be disc-like. Mergers enhance BH growth through higher gas accretion rates onto central regions and direct BH-BH mergers. However, these channels operate differently: in HBH galaxies, BHs grow primarily (~ 90%) by gas accretion, whereas in LBH they grow both through gas accretion (~ 60%) and BH-BH mergers (~40%). Our results suggest that the different BH masses in MW and M31 could be explained by differences in merger histories.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. This paper uses the ARTEMIS and EAGLE cosmological hydrodynamical simulations to study the co-evolution of supermassive black holes (BHs) and their host L* galaxies. Galaxies are classified at z=0 into LBH (low BH-to-stellar mass ratio) and HBH (high ratio) samples. The authors find that these samples have similar properties at z ≈ 2 but diverge at lower redshifts, with HBH galaxies experiencing more mergers, leading to earlier star formation, faster BH growth, and quenching. BH growth in HBH galaxies is dominated by gas accretion (~90%), while in LBH galaxies it is split between gas accretion (~60%) and BH-BH mergers (~40%). The results are used to explain the scatter in BH masses and morphologies, and to suggest that differences in merger histories could account for the different BH masses in the Milky Way and M31.

Significance. Should the findings prove robust against variations in sub-grid physics, this study would provide a valuable simulation-based interpretation of the scatter in the local BH-galaxy scaling relations for L* systems. By linking merger history to both BH growth channels and galaxy morphology, it offers a potential explanation for why some L* galaxies are disc-like with lower-mass BHs while others are elliptical with higher-mass BHs. The suggestion regarding the Milky Way and M31 adds an interesting observational hook, though it remains qualitative. The use of two independent simulation suites (ARTEMIS and EAGLE) is a positive aspect for cross-checking results.

major comments (2)
  1. The abstract and results report specific fractions for BH growth (90% gas accretion for HBH galaxies and 60% accretion + 40% mergers for LBH galaxies), but these are presented without error bars, sample sizes, or tests for sensitivity to the sub-grid parameters used in the simulations. Since the central claim attributes the divergence between LBH and HBH tracks to merger-driven differences in these channels, demonstrating that the 40% merger contribution is not an artifact of the BH merger prescription or resolution is necessary.
  2. There is no explicit discussion of resolution convergence tests for the BH growth and merger rates in the LBH and HBH samples. Given that the paper relies on the relative efficiency of gas accretion versus BH-BH mergers, which can be sensitive to numerical resolution, this omission weakens the load-bearing interpretation that merger history differences are the primary driver.
minor comments (2)
  1. The abstract mentions that the simulations 'broadly match' the observed scatter, but a more precise statement on which observational datasets are being compared would improve clarity.
  2. The definition of L* galaxies and the exact mass range or selection criteria for the samples could be stated more explicitly to allow readers to assess the generality of the results.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive and insightful report. We address the two major comments point by point below, indicating where revisions will be made to improve clarity and robustness while defending the core scientific interpretation.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: The abstract and results report specific fractions for BH growth (90% gas accretion for HBH galaxies and 60% accretion + 40% mergers for LBH galaxies), but these are presented without error bars, sample sizes, or tests for sensitivity to the sub-grid parameters used in the simulations. Since the central claim attributes the divergence between LBH and HBH tracks to merger-driven differences in these channels, demonstrating that the 40% merger contribution is not an artifact of the BH merger prescription or resolution is necessary.

    Authors: We appreciate this valid concern regarding quantification and robustness. In the revised manuscript we will explicitly state the sample sizes (typically 40–80 galaxies per LBH/HBH category in each simulation suite) and attach error bars to the growth-channel fractions, computed as the standard error across the galaxies in each bin. On the question of sub-grid sensitivity, we note that the reported trends, including the ~40 % BH–BH merger contribution in LBH systems, are reproduced in both ARTEMIS and EAGLE despite their distinct numerical implementations and slight differences in BH seeding and feedback prescriptions. We will add a short paragraph highlighting this cross-simulation consistency as evidence that the result is not an artifact of any single merger prescription. A dedicated parameter-variation study lies beyond the present scope, but the existing agreement between independent codes provides meaningful support for the physical interpretation. revision: partial

  2. Referee: There is no explicit discussion of resolution convergence tests for the BH growth and merger rates in the LBH and HBH samples. Given that the paper relies on the relative efficiency of gas accretion versus BH-BH mergers, which can be sensitive to numerical resolution, this omission weakens the load-bearing interpretation that merger history differences are the primary driver.

    Authors: We agree that an explicit discussion of resolution would strengthen the paper. The revised version will include a dedicated paragraph (in the Methods or Discussion section) that directly references the resolution convergence tests already published for the parent EAGLE (Schaye et al. 2015) and ARTEMIS (Font et al. 2020) simulations. Those studies show that BH masses, accretion rates, and merger rates converge at the resolutions used for the L* samples analysed here. We will further argue that because both gas-accretion and BH–BH merger channels exhibit comparable convergence behaviour, their relative contributions—and therefore the link to merger history—remain robust. No new resolution runs are feasible within the current project, but the existing validation in the simulation reference papers addresses the concern. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: results emerge from direct simulation tracking without definitional reduction or load-bearing self-citation

full rationale

The paper classifies simulated galaxies at z=0 by M_BH/M_star into LBH and HBH samples, compares their properties backward to z~2, and attributes later divergence to differences in merger-driven gas accretion and BH-BH mergers. These outcomes are direct outputs of the ARTEMIS and EAGLE runs rather than any closed-form derivation or parameter fit that is then relabeled as a prediction. No equations, ansatzes, or uniqueness theorems are invoked; the sub-grid prescriptions are standard and the reported scatter is checked against external observations, keeping the chain self-contained and non-circular.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the fidelity of the sub-grid prescriptions for BH seeding, accretion, and feedback already present in the ARTEMIS and EAGLE codes; no new free parameters or invented entities are introduced in this work.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption The sub-grid models for black-hole accretion and AGN feedback in ARTEMIS and EAGLE produce realistic galaxy populations at z=0
    Invoked when the paper states that the simulations 'broadly match the observed scatter'

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5827 in / 1456 out tokens · 35820 ms · 2026-05-20T15:54:18.353731+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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Reference graph

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