X., Wei, Z., & Wen, J.-R

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Yang, T.-C., Hsu, Y.-C., & Wu, J.-Y. (2025). The effectiveness of ChatGPT in assisting high school students in programming learning: evidence from a quasi -experimental research. Interactive Learning Environments, 33(6), 3726–3743. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2025.2450659 Yilmaz, R., & Karaoglan Yilmaz, F. G. (2023). The effect of generative artificial intelligence (AI) -based tool use on students’ computational thinking skills, programming self -efficacy and motivation. Computers and Education: Art ificial Intelligence , 4, 100147. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100147 KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ChatGPT: An AI system that generates code, explanations, and feedback through natural language interaction. Programming Education : The structured teaching of coding, algorithmic reasoning, and problem-solving in computer science. Miranda et al. (2026) Pedagogical Innovations in Computer Science Education https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-6546-6.ch010 GenAI: An AI technology that creates new content such as text, code, or images based on learned data patterns. Pedagogical Integration: The structured inclusion of ChatGPT

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Yang, T.-C., Hsu, Y.-C., & Wu, J.-Y. (2025). The effectiveness of ChatGPT in assisting high school students in programming learning: evidence from a quasi -experimental research. Interactive Learning Environments, 33(6), 3726–3743. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2025.2450659 Yilmaz, R., & Karaoglan Yilmaz, F. G. (2023). The effect of generative artificial intelligence (AI) -based tool use on students’ computational thinking skills, programming self -efficacy and motivation. Computers and Education: Art ificial Intelligence, 4, 100147. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100147 KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ChatGPT: An AI system that generates code, explanations, and feedback through natural language interaction. Programming Education : The structured teaching of coding, algorithmic reasoning, and problem-solving in computer science. Miranda et al. (2026) Pedagogical Innovations in Computer Science Education https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-6546-6.ch010 GenAI: An AI technology that creates new content such as text, code, or images based on learned data patterns. Pedagogical Integration: The structured inclusion of ChatGPT

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Jin Wang and Wenxiang Fan. 2025. The effect of ChatGPT on students’ learning performance, learning perception, and higher-order thinking: insights from a meta-analysis.Humanities and Social Sciences Communications12, 1 (May 2025), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Publisher: Palgrave

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creative skills. Similarly, students with lower confidence in their writing skills, lower 'self-efficacy for writing' (SEWS), tended to use ChatGPT more extensively, while higher-efficacy students were more selective in AI reliance [19]. We refer the reader to the meta-analysis [20] on the effect of ChatGPT on students' learning performance, learning perception, and higher-order thinking. Web search and learning According to Turner and Rainie [21], '81 percent of Americans rely on information from the Internet 'a lot' when making important decisions,' many of

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doi:10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y

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Jin Wang and Wenxiang Fan. 2025. The effect of ChatGPT on students’ learning performance, learning perception, and higher-order thinking: insights from a meta-analysis.Humanities and Social Sciences Communications12, 1 (2025), 1–21. doi:10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Confidence Without Competence in AI-Assisted Knowledge Work CHIWORK ’26, June 22–25, 2026, Linz, Austria A Appendix A.1 Interview Protocol for the Formative Study The following questions were used during the 20-30 minute semi-structured interviews with participants P1-P16. Phase A: Current LLM Usage and Critical Thinking (1) Can you describe how you currently use LLMs (e.g., ChatGPT, Copilot) in your studies? •What do you usually ask it to do for you? •Do you use it more for quick answers, or for longer projects? (2) Can you walk me through a recent task where you used an LLM? What steps did you take? •What was the task about? •Which part of the task did you use the LLM for? •Did you try more than one prompt or just one? (3) How do you decide which outputs from the LLM to use or modify? •What makes an answer feel “good enough” to you? •Do you usually check the information somewhere else? (4) How much of your work is typica

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Wang, L., Ma, C., Feng, X., Zhang, Z., Yang, H., Zhang, J., Chen, Z.-Y., Tang, J., Chen, X., Lin, Y., Zhao, W. X., Wei, Z., & Wen, J.-R. (2025). A survey on large language model-based autonomous agents. Frontiers of Computer Science . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40231-1 Wang, Y., Wei, Z., Wijaya, T. T., Cao, Y., & Ning, Y. (2025). Awareness, acceptance, and adoption of Gen-AI by K-12 mathematics teachers: An empirical study integrating TAM and TPB. BMC Psychology, 13 ,

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Wang, L., Ma, C., Feng, X., Zhang, Z., Yang, H., Zhang, J., Chen, Z.-Y., Tang, J., Chen, X., Lin, Y., Zhao, W. X., Wei, Z., & Wen, J.-R. (2025). A survey on large language model-based autonomous agents. Frontiers of Computer Science . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40231-1 Wang, Y., Wei, Z., Wijaya, T. T., Cao, Y., & Ning, Y. (2025). Awareness, acceptance, and adoption of Gen-AI by K-12 mathematics teachers: An empirical study integrating TAM and TPB. BMC Psychology, 13

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Wang, L., Ma, C., Feng, X., Zhang, Z., Yang, H., Zhang, J., Chen, Z.-Y., Tang, J., Chen, X., Lin, Y., Zhao, W. X., Wei, Z., & Wen, J.-R. (2025). A survey on large language model-based autonomous agents. Frontiers of Computer Science . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40231-1 Wang, Y., Wei, Z., Wijaya, T. T., Cao, Y., & Ning, Y. (2025). Awareness, acceptance, and adoption of Gen-AI by K-12 mathematics teachers: An empirical study integrating TAM and TPB. BMC Psychology, 13 ,

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Wang, L., Ma, C., Feng, X., Zhang, Z., Yang, H., Zhang, J., Chen, Z.-Y., Tang, J., Chen, X., Lin, Y., Zhao, W. X., Wei, Z., & Wen, J.-R. (2025). A survey on large language model-based autonomous agents. Frontiers of Computer Science . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40231-1 Wang, Y., Wei, Z., Wijaya, T. T., Cao, Y., & Ning, Y. (2025). Awareness, acceptance, and adoption of Gen-AI by K-12 mathematics teachers: An empirical study integrating TAM and TPB. BMC Psychology, 13

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Jin Wang and Wenxiang Fan. 2025. The effect of ChatGPT on students’ learning performance, learning perception, and higher-order thinking: insights from a meta-analysis.Humanities and Social Sciences Communications12, 1 (May 2025), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Publisher: Palgrave

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creative skills. Similarly, students with lower confidence in their writing skills, lower 'self-efficacy for writing' (SEWS), tended to use ChatGPT more extensively, while higher-efficacy students were more selective in AI reliance [19]. We refer the reader to the meta-analysis [20] on the effect of ChatGPT on students' learning performance, learning perception, and higher-order thinking. Web search and learning According to Turner and Rainie [21], '81 percent of Americans rely on information from the Internet 'a lot' when making important decisions,' many of

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doi:10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y

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Jin Wang and Wenxiang Fan. 2025. The effect of ChatGPT on students’ learning performance, learning perception, and higher-order thinking: insights from a meta-analysis.Humanities and Social Sciences Communications12, 1 (2025), 1–21. doi:10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Confidence Without Competence in AI-Assisted Knowledge Work CHIWORK ’26, June 22–25, 2026, Linz, Austria A Appendix A.1 Interview Protocol for the Formative Study The following questions were used during the 20-30 minute semi-structured interviews with participants P1-P16. Phase A: Current LLM Usage and Critical Thinking (1) Can you describe how you currently use LLMs (e.g., ChatGPT, Copilot) in your studies? •What do you usually ask it to do for you? •Do you use it more for quick answers, or for longer projects? (2) Can you walk me through a recent task where you used an LLM? What steps did you take? •What was the task about? •Which part of the task did you use the LLM for? •Did you try more than one prompt or just one? (3) How do you decide which outputs from the LLM to use or modify? •What makes an answer feel “good enough” to you? •Do you usually check the information somewhere else? (4) How much of your work is typica

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Wang, L., Ma, C., Feng, X., Zhang, Z., Yang, H., Zhang, J., Chen, Z.-Y., Tang, J., Chen, X., Lin, Y., Zhao, W. X., Wei, Z., & Wen, J.-R. (2025). A survey on large language model-based autonomous agents. Frontiers of Computer Science . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40231-1 Wang, Y., Wei, Z., Wijaya, T. T., Cao, Y., & Ning, Y. (2025). Awareness, acceptance, and adoption of Gen-AI by K-12 mathematics teachers: An empirical study integrating TAM and TPB. BMC Psychology, 13 ,

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Wang, L., Ma, C., Feng, X., Zhang, Z., Yang, H., Zhang, J., Chen, Z.-Y., Tang, J., Chen, X., Lin, Y., Zhao, W. X., Wei, Z., & Wen, J.-R. (2025). A survey on large language model-based autonomous agents. Frontiers of Computer Science . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40231-1 Wang, Y., Wei, Z., Wijaya, T. T., Cao, Y., & Ning, Y. (2025). Awareness, acceptance, and adoption of Gen-AI by K-12 mathematics teachers: An empirical study integrating TAM and TPB. BMC Psychology, 13

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Wang, L., Ma, C., Feng, X., Zhang, Z., Yang, H., Zhang, J., Chen, Z.-Y., Tang, J., Chen, X., Lin, Y., Zhao, W. X., Wei, Z., & Wen, J.-R. (2025). A survey on large language model-based autonomous agents. Frontiers of Computer Science . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40231-1 Wang, Y., Wei, Z., Wijaya, T. T., Cao, Y., & Ning, Y. (2025). Awareness, acceptance, and adoption of Gen-AI by K-12 mathematics teachers: An empirical study integrating TAM and TPB. BMC Psychology, 13 ,

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Wang, L., Ma, C., Feng, X., Zhang, Z., Yang, H., Zhang, J., Chen, Z.-Y., Tang, J., Chen, X., Lin, Y., Zhao, W. X., Wei, Z., & Wen, J.-R. (2025). A survey on large language model-based autonomous agents. Frontiers of Computer Science . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40231-1 Wang, Y., Wei, Z., Wijaya, T. T., Cao, Y., & Ning, Y. (2025). Awareness, acceptance, and adoption of Gen-AI by K-12 mathematics teachers: An empirical study integrating TAM and TPB. BMC Psychology, 13

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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Yang, T.-C., Hsu, Y.-C., & Wu, J.-Y. (2025). The effectiveness of ChatGPT in assisting high school students in programming learning: evidence from a quasi -experimental research. Interactive Learning Environments, 33(6), 3726–3743. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2025.2450659 Yilmaz, R., & Karaoglan Yilmaz, F. G. (2023). The effect of generative artificial intelligence (AI) -based tool use on students’ computational thinking skills, programming self -efficacy and motivation. Computers and Education: Art ificial Intelligence , 4, 100147. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100147 KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ChatGPT: An AI system that generates code, explanations, and feedback through natural language interaction. Programming Education : The structured teaching of coding, algorithmic reasoning, and problem-solving in computer science. Miranda et al. (2026) Pedagogical Innovations in Computer Science Education https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-6546-6.ch010 GenAI: An AI technology that creates new content such as text, code, or images based on learned data patterns. Pedagogical Integration: The structured inclusion of ChatGPT

Parser render (TeX stripped for reading; raw above is the evidence)

https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04787-y Yang, T.-C., Hsu, Y.-C., & Wu, J.-Y. (2025). The effectiveness of ChatGPT in assisting high school students in programming learning: evidence from a quasi -experimental research. Interactive Learning Environments, 33(6), 3726–3743. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2025.2450659 Yilmaz, R., & Karaoglan Yilmaz, F. G. (2023). The effect of generative artificial intelligence (AI) -based tool use on students’ computational thinking skills, programming self -efficacy and motivation. Computers and Education: Art ificial Intelligence, 4, 100147. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100147 KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ChatGPT: An AI system that generates code, explanations, and feedback through natural language interaction. Programming Education : The structured teaching of coding, algorithmic reasoning, and problem-solving in computer science. Miranda et al. (2026) Pedagogical Innovations in Computer Science Education https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-6546-6.ch010 GenAI: An AI technology that creates new content such as text, code, or images based on learned data patterns. Pedagogical Integration: The structured inclusion of ChatGPT