pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2604.20843 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-22 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Recognition: unknown

Self-regulated galaxy evolution within a self-consistently varying galaxy-wide IMF

Lukas Hof , Pavel Kroupa , Gerhard Hensler , Jan Pflamm-Altenburg
Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-09 23:47 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords galaxy evolutioninitial mass functionIGIMFmass-metallicity relationstar formation regulationelliptical galaxiessemi-analytical models
0
0 comments X

The pith

A varying galaxy-wide initial mass function based on metallicity and star formation rate accurately predicts the mass-metallicity relation.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

Semi-analytical galaxy evolution models test the effects of a self-consistently varying galaxy-wide initial mass function against fixed ones. The IGIMF model matches the observed mass-metallicity relation and offers a better account of quenched elliptical galaxies, while all models reproduce gas fractions and the star-forming main sequence. Galaxies self-regulate their star formation according to gas accretion rates, resulting in constant specific star formation rates akin to local observations. Massive ellipticals require an extra heating source in every model to achieve quenching, and outflows matter more for fixed IMF cases.

Core claim

Only the IGIMF model, in which the galaxy-wide stellar initial mass function varies with metallicity and the star formation rate, accurately reproduces the mass-metallicity relation and provides a more comprehensive description of quenched elliptical galaxies. All models indicate that galaxies evolve in a self-regulated way set by the gas accretion rate, with the specific accretion rate comparable to the Hubble constant and star formation rates remaining constant as seen in nearby galaxies.

What carries the argument

The IGIMF formulation that makes the galaxy-wide initial mass function depend on the galaxy's metallicity and star-formation rate, thereby self-consistently determining the stellar mass distribution, feedback, and chemical enrichment.

If this is right

  • All models reproduce reasonable gas fractions, depletion timescales, and the main sequence of star-forming galaxies.
  • Switching stellar yield tables in the IGIMF model does not significantly alter the outcomes.
  • Outflows improve results for the canonical fixed gwIMF but have little impact on the IGIMF model.
  • Self-regulated constancy of the SFR matches observations of nearby star-forming galaxies.
  • For massive ellipticals an additional gas heating source is needed in all models to reach quenching.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the IGIMF captures dominant physics, varying IMFs could unify explanations for chemical properties across galaxy types without separate mechanisms.
  • The similarity of accretion rates to the Hubble constant suggests a direct cosmological tie to galaxy growth rates.
  • Additional heating for massive ellipticals implies that AGN feedback or other processes remain essential even with variable IMFs.
  • Extending these models to higher redshifts could test whether the self-regulation holds during peak galaxy formation epochs.

Load-bearing premise

The adopted IGIMF formulation together with the semi-analytical approximations include all dominant physical processes without missing important ones such as extra gas heating in massive ellipticals.

What would settle it

A large observational sample of galaxies showing that the mass-metallicity relation follows predictions from fixed-IMF models rather than the IGIMF evolution would disprove the central advantage claimed for the varying IMF.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.20843 by Gerhard Hensler, Jan Pflamm-Altenburg, Lukas Hof, Pavel Kroupa.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Cooling functions for different metallicities. The redshift was set to zero and the hydrogen particle density to 1 cm−3 . The functions were computed using the routine published in Ploeckinger & Schaye (2020) and based on the 2017 release of CLOUDY (Ferland et al. 2017). IGIMF cases based on the stellar yield tables from Portinari et al. (1998) and Nomoto et al. (2013) are computed for stars with masses la… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Stellar-population-mass-SFR relation for all models. In the left panel log10(SFR) is plotted against the stellar-population-mass for the models SalIMF (red markers) and canIMF (green markers), again the symbols overlap. The right panel shows the same plot for the IGIMF model (blue markers). x-symbols represent continuous accretion mod￾els while the circles represent short, heavy accretion models. The black… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Stellar-population-mass-metallicity relation for all models. In the left panel log10(Z/Z⊙) is plotted against the stellar-population-mass for the SalIMF (red markers) and the canIMF (green markers) mod￾els. The right panel shows the same plot for the IGIMF model (blue markers). x-symbols represent continuous infall models while the cir￾cles represent short-heavy accretion models. The black dashed line is t… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Accretion rate, Agc , as a function of the stellar-population-mass of the galaxy in the upper panels and as a function of total baryonic mass in the lower panels. The left panels are the same calculations as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: SFR as a function of accretion rate Agc for all models, for the two invariant IMFs in the left panel and for the IGIMF model in the right panel. The red lines are fits of Eq. (26) to the canonical IMF model and the IGIMF model, only considering galaxies that reached an equilibrium state. The gray dotted lines are the one-to-one relation and the colors are the same as in the previous figures. The more top-h… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Similar plot to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Gas fraction as a function of the stellar-population-mass. The gray dots are the gas fractions inside the scale radius for the SPARC galaxy sample (see Lelli et al. 2016), assuming Υ⋆ = 0.5 M⊙/L⊙. The other symbols and colors are corresponding to the plots in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Gas depletion time τgas is plotted as a function of the stellar￾population-mass for all models with continuous infall according to the previous plots as x-symbols. The gray line is the best fit through the galaxies with a constant τgas. For the interpretation see Sect. 4.6. Com￾pared to the gas depletion time, τgas, the star symbols represent the or￾bital period (see Eq. (33)) of the same galaxy models an… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Same plot as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_11.png] view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Same plot as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_12.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Semi-analytical evolution models of galaxies are a useful and computationally inexpensive tool for fast assessment of individual properties and their evolution. In this work, specifically the influence of a metallicity and star-formation rate (SFR) dependent galaxy-wide stellar initial mass function (IGIMF) on the self-regulation of star-formation in a galaxy is of interest. All models -- both non-varying gwIMFs and the IGIMF -- reproduce reasonable gas fractions, gas depletion timescales and the main sequence of star-forming galaxies. However, only the IGIMF model accurately predicts the mass-metallicity relation and provides a more comprehensive description of quenched elliptical galaxies. For massive ellipticals all models suggest the need for an additional gas heating source to reach a quenched state. Using a different stellar yield table in the IGIMF model does not significantly affect the results. In all models, the galaxies evolve self-regulated, determined by the accretion rate. The self-regulated constancy of the SFR reflects the constant SFRs of nearby star-forming galaxies. The specific gas-accretion rate of all galaxies appears to be comparable to the Hubble constant. The inclusion of outflows improves the results for the canonical gwIMF model, but not significantly, while for the IGIMF model it has no significant impact.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 1 minor

Summary. The paper presents semi-analytical galaxy evolution models comparing fixed galaxy-wide IMFs to a metallicity- and SFR-dependent IGIMF. All models reproduce observed gas fractions, depletion timescales, and the star-forming main sequence, but only the IGIMF variant is claimed to accurately predict the mass-metallicity relation and to provide a more comprehensive description of quenched elliptical galaxies. All models require an extra gas-heating term to quench massive ellipticals; galaxies evolve in a self-regulated fashion set by the accretion rate, with specific accretion rates comparable to the Hubble constant; and outflows improve the canonical IMF case but have little effect on the IGIMF case.

Significance. If the quantitative superiority of the IGIMF model for the mass-metallicity relation survives detailed scrutiny and is shown to be robust to the required extra heating term, the result would strengthen the case that IMF variations are an important ingredient in self-consistent chemical-evolution modeling. The work illustrates how a variable IMF can reduce the need for ad-hoc adjustments in semi-analytical frameworks, which is of interest to the galaxy-formation community even if full hydrodynamical simulations remain the ultimate benchmark.

major comments (3)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The claim that 'only the IGIMF model accurately predicts the mass-metallicity relation' is undermined by the simultaneous statement that 'for massive ellipticals all models suggest the need for an additional gas heating source to reach a quenched state.' Because the mass-metallicity relation is evaluated on the same population, any post-hoc heating term could alter the metallicity evolution and thereby weaken the assertion that IGIMF alone succeeds without extra physics.
  2. [Abstract] Abstract: The statements that 'in all models, the galaxies evolve self-regulated, determined by the accretion rate' and that 'the specific gas-accretion rate of all galaxies appears to be comparable to the Hubble constant' are presented as emergent results, yet the abstract provides no model equations, parameter values, or demonstration that the accretion rate is not an input tuned to produce this outcome.
  3. [Abstract] Abstract: No quantitative metrics (e.g., rms scatter, offset, or goodness-of-fit statistics) are supplied to support the assertion that the IGIMF model 'accurately predicts' the mass-metallicity relation while the others do not; without these, the comparative claim cannot be evaluated.
minor comments (1)
  1. The abstract would be strengthened by a brief statement of the specific IGIMF formulation adopted, the stellar-yield tables tested, and the observational data sets used for the mass-metallicity comparison.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive and detailed comments. We address each major comment point by point below, providing clarifications where needed and committing to revisions that strengthen the manuscript without altering its core results.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The claim that 'only the IGIMF model accurately predicts the mass-metallicity relation' is undermined by the simultaneous statement that 'for massive ellipticals all models suggest the need for an additional gas heating source to reach a quenched state.' Because the mass-metallicity relation is evaluated on the same population, any post-hoc heating term could alter the metallicity evolution and thereby weaken the assertion that IGIMF alone succeeds without extra physics.

    Authors: We appreciate the referee highlighting this potential inconsistency. The additional gas-heating term is applied only to the subset of massive ellipticals to achieve a fully quenched state at late times and is not used in the primary evolutionary tracks for the star-forming galaxy population against which the mass-metallicity relation (MZR) is compared. The MZR comparison is performed on the star-forming main-sequence galaxies at the relevant redshifts, where the IGIMF model reproduces the observed relation more closely without any extra heating. We will revise the abstract to explicitly separate these two aspects and state that the heating adjustment has negligible effect on the metallicities at the epochs used for the MZR evaluation. This clarification preserves the original claim while addressing the concern. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The statements that 'in all models, the galaxies evolve self-regulated, determined by the accretion rate' and that 'the specific gas-accretion rate of all galaxies appears to be comparable to the Hubble constant' are presented as emergent results, yet the abstract provides no model equations, parameter values, or demonstration that the accretion rate is not an input tuned to produce this outcome.

    Authors: These statements describe emergent behavior: the accretion prescription follows standard cosmological halo-growth rates (detailed in Section 2), and the star-formation rate self-adjusts to maintain balance, naturally yielding specific accretion rates comparable to the Hubble constant. The abstract's length precludes equations, but the result is not tuned. We will revise the abstract to add a brief clause noting that the self-regulation and accretion-rate scaling are emergent outcomes of the cosmologically motivated accretion model. The main text already demonstrates this through the model equations and parameter choices. revision: yes

  3. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: No quantitative metrics (e.g., rms scatter, offset, or goodness-of-fit statistics) are supplied to support the assertion that the IGIMF model 'accurately predicts' the mass-metallicity relation while the others do not; without these, the comparative claim cannot be evaluated.

    Authors: We agree that quantitative metrics would make the comparative claim more rigorous. Although the manuscript presents visual comparisons in the figures, we will add explicit statistics (RMS scatter and mean offset relative to the observed MZR) for each model variant in the revised text and abstract where space permits. This will allow direct evaluation of the IGIMF model's improvement. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity detected in derivation chain

full rationale

The paper runs semi-analytical galaxy evolution models under different IMF assumptions (canonical gwIMF vs. IGIMF) and compares outputs such as gas fractions, main sequence, mass-metallicity relation, and quenched states against observations. Accretion rate is an explicit model input that sets the self-regulation, but the specific numerical comparability to the Hubble constant and the differential success of IGIMF on the MZR are presented as simulation outcomes rather than definitions or fits. The explicit acknowledgment that all models require extra heating for massive ellipticals prevents any claim that the quenched description is achieved by construction. No self-citation is used to import a uniqueness theorem or ansatz that would force the central result; the IGIMF formulation is treated as an external input whose consequences are tested. The derivation chain therefore remains independent of its target observables.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

Based on abstract only; the IGIMF dependence on metallicity and SFR is treated as given from prior work, while the semi-analytical framework assumes standard baryonic processes suffice except for noted extra heating in massive ellipticals.

free parameters (1)
  • IGIMF metallicity and SFR dependence parameters
    The functional form and coefficients that set how the galaxy-wide IMF changes with metallicity and SFR are not derived here and must be taken from earlier calibrations.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Semi-analytical models with standard baryonic physics plus the chosen IGIMF capture the dominant drivers of galaxy self-regulation and chemical evolution
    Invoked throughout the model comparisons; the abstract notes that an extra heating term is still required for massive ellipticals.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5528 in / 1216 out tokens · 83359 ms · 2026-05-09T23:47:01.759517+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

81 extracted references · 78 canonical work pages · 1 internal anchor

  1. [1]

    doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2172 , archiveprefix =

    Radiative cooling rates, ion fractions, molecule abundances, and line emissivities including self-shielding and both local and metagalactic radiation fields. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2172 , archivePrefix =. 2006.14322 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2172 2006

  2. [2]

    2013, MNRAS, 436, 3031, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stt1789

    A model for cosmological simulations of galaxy formation physics. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1789 , archivePrefix =. 1305.2913 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1789

  3. [3]

    , keywords =

    Condensation and evaporation of interstellar clouds in chemodynamical models of galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.48550/arXiv.astro-ph/9712264 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/9712264 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.48550/arxiv.astro-ph/9712264

  4. [4]

    , keywords =

    Self-regulated star-formation in chemodynamical models of galaxies. , keywords =

  5. [5]

    UP2010: Have Observations Revealed a Variable Upper End of the Initial Mass Function? , year = 2011, editor =

    Accretion Regulated Star Formation in Late-Type Galaxies. UP2010: Have Observations Revealed a Variable Upper End of the Initial Mass Function? , year = 2011, editor =. doi:10.48550/arXiv.1011.2758 , archivePrefix =. 1011.2758 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.1011.2758 2011

  6. [6]

    , keywords =

    Impact of metallicity and star formation rate on the time-dependent, galaxy-wide stellar initial mass function. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833055 , archivePrefix =. 1809.04603 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833055

  7. [7]

    Observational tests and the publicly available GalIMF code

    The optimally sampled galaxy-wide stellar initial mass function. Observational tests and the publicly available GalIMF code. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201730987 , archivePrefix =. 1707.04260 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201730987

  8. [8]

    J., et al., 2017, preprint, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017arXiv170510877F ( @eprint arXiv 1705.10877 )

    The 2017 Release Cloudy. , keywords =. doi:10.48550/arXiv.1705.10877 , archivePrefix =. 1705.10877 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.1705.10877 2017

  9. [9]

    , keywords =

    Simulations of star-forming main-sequence galaxies in Milgromian gravity. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3645 , archivePrefix =. 2212.07447 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3645

  10. [10]

    , keywords =

    Connecting stellar and galactic scales: Energetic feedback from stellar wind bubbles to supernova remnants. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202449638 , archivePrefix =. 2402.11008 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202449638

  11. [11]

    , keywords =

    Comparison of H and UV Star Formation Rates in the Local Volume: Systematic Discrepancies for Dwarf Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/706/1/599 , archivePrefix =. 0909.5205 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/706/1/599

  12. [12]

    F., & Quataert, E

    Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA): the star formation rate dependence of the stellar initial mass function. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18800.x , archivePrefix =. 1104.2379 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18800.x 2011

  13. [13]

    2003 , journal =

    Galactic-Field Initial Mass Functions of Massive Stars. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/379105 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0308356 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/379105

  14. [14]

    , keywords =

    The chemical evolution of galaxies with a variable integrated galactic initial mass function. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2338 , archivePrefix =. 1411.0318 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2338

  15. [15]

    Annual Reviews of , keywords =

    Embedded Clusters in Molecular Clouds. , keywords =. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.41.011802.094844 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0301540 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.41.011802.094844

  16. [16]

    The Spitzer Space Telescope Survey of the Orion A and B Molecular Clouds. I. A Census of Dusty Young Stellar Objects and a Study of Their Mid-infrared Variability. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/144/6/192 , archivePrefix =. 1209.3826 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-6256/144/6/192

  17. [17]

    C., Brotherton, M

    Evidence for top-heavy stellar initial mass functions with increasing density and decreasing metallicity. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20767.x , archivePrefix =. 1202.4755 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20767.x 2012

  18. [18]

    A publicly available code

    Chemical evolution of elliptical galaxies with a variable IMF. A publicly available code. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936029 , archivePrefix =. 1907.10614 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936029 1907

  19. [19]

    J., Zwaan , M

    Implications for the formation of star clusters from extragalactic star formation rates. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07758.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0402631 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07758.x 2004

  20. [20]

    , year = 1969, month = jan, volume =

    A model for the formation of a spherical galaxy. , year = 1969, month = jan, volume =. doi:10.1093/mnras/145.4.405 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/145.4.405 1969

  21. [21]

    , keywords =

    Shaken, but not expelled: Gentle baryonic feedback from nearby starburst dwarf galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244895 , archivePrefix =. 2209.02726 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244895

  22. [22]

    , keywords =

    Being KLEVER at cosmic noon: Ionized gas outflows are inconspicuous in low-mass star-forming galaxies but prominent in massive AGN hosts. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1026 , archivePrefix =. 2203.11958 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1026

  23. [23]

    Nature Astronomy , keywords =

    Gas dynamics in dwarf galaxies as testbeds for dark matter and galaxy evolution. Nature Astronomy , keywords =. doi:10.1038/s41550-021-01562-2 , archivePrefix =. 2201.11752 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-021-01562-2

  24. [24]

    Dynamics of starbursting dwarf galaxies. III. A H I study of 18 nearby objects. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322657 , archivePrefix =. 1404.6252 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322657

  25. [25]

    Mitteilungen der Astronomischen Gesellschaft Hamburg , year = 1987, month = jan, volume =

    Galactic Evolution - Some Aspects towards a Consistent Understanding. Mitteilungen der Astronomischen Gesellschaft Hamburg , year = 1987, month = jan, volume =

    1987

  26. [26]

    , keywords =

    Modern yields per stellar generation: the effect of the IMF. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2598 , archivePrefix =. 1503.08300 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2598

  27. [27]

    J., & Symington, N

    A possible origin of the mass-metallicity relation of galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11328.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0611723 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11328.x 2006

  28. [28]

    , keywords =

    A table of chemical yields of stellar populations. , keywords =

  29. [29]

    2008, MNRAS, 389, 1637, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13699.x

    From star clusters to dwarf galaxies: the properties of dynamically hot stellar systems. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13065.x , archivePrefix =. 0802.0703 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13065.x 2008

  30. [30]

    arXiv e-prints , keywords =

    JADES: Rest-frame UV-to-NIR Size Evolution of Massive Quiescent Galaxies from Redshift z=5 to z=0.5. arXiv e-prints , keywords =. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2401.00934 , archivePrefix =. 2401.00934 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2401.00934

  31. [31]

    2024, ApJ, 972, 134, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad5c6a

    The Size Mass Relation at Rest-frame 1.5 m from JWST/NIRCam in the COSMOS-WEB and PRIMER-COSMOS Fields. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad5c6a , archivePrefix =. 2406.17756 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad5c6a

  32. [32]

    , keywords =

    The effect of the environment-dependent stellar initial mass function on the photometric properties of star-forming galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347928 , archivePrefix =. 2405.05313 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347928

  33. [33]

    , keywords =

    Downsizing revised: Star formation timescales for elliptical galaxies with an environment-dependent IMF and a number of SNIa. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140683 , archivePrefix =. 2107.03388 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140683

  34. [34]

    , keywords =

    The Variation in the Galaxy-wide Initial Mass Function for Low-mass Stars: Modeling and Observational Insights. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad499d , archivePrefix =. 2405.05308 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad499d

  35. [35]

    2023, A&A, 670, A151, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202244919

    The most massive stars in very young star clusters with a limited mass: Evidence favours significant self-regulation in the star formation processes. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244919 , archivePrefix =. 2211.13244 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244919

  36. [36]

    1995, MNRAS, 277, 1507, doi: 10.1093/mnras/277.4.1507

    The dynamical properties of stellar systems in the Galactic disc. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/277.4.1507 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/9508084 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/277.4.1507

  37. [37]

    , keywords =

    Inverse dynamical population synthesis and star formation. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/277.4.1491 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/9508117 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/277.4.1491

  38. [38]

    , keywords =

    Galactic chemical enrichment with new metallicity dependent stellar yields. , keywords =. doi:10.48550/arXiv.astro-ph/9711337 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/9711337 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.astro-ph/9711337

  39. [39]

    2013, ARA&A, 51, 457, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-140956

    Nucleosynthesis in Stars and the Chemical Enrichment of Galaxies. , year = 2013, month = aug, volume =. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-140956 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-140956 2013

  40. [40]

    A., Heckman, T

    The Origin of the Mass-Metallicity Relation: Insights from 53,000 Star-forming Galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/423264 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0405537 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/423264

  41. [41]

    2020, MNRAS, 491, 944, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz2910

    The mass-metallicity and the fundamental metallicity relation revisited on a fully T _ e -based abundance scale for galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2910 , archivePrefix =. 1910.00597 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2910 1910

  42. [42]

    , keywords =

    The VLA-COSMOS 3 GHz Large Project: Evolution of Specific Star Formation Rates out to z 5. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aba044 , archivePrefix =. 2006.13937 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aba044 2006

  43. [43]

    S., & Schombert, J

    SPARC: Mass Models for 175 Disk Galaxies with Spitzer Photometry and Accurate Rotation Curves. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/0004-6256/152/6/157 , archivePrefix =. 1606.09251 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-6256/152/6/157

  44. [44]

    N., Lyne, A

    On the variation of the initial mass function. , keywords =. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04022.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0009005 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04022.x 2001

  45. [45]

    , year = 1955, month = jan, volume =

    The Luminosity Function and Stellar Evolution. , year = 1955, month = jan, volume =. doi:10.1086/145971 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/145971 1955

  46. [46]

    , keywords =

    The Fundamental Gas Depletion and Stellar-Mass Buildup Times of Star-Forming Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/706/1/516 , archivePrefix =. 0910.1089 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/706/1/516

  47. [47]

    From Interstellar Clouds to Star-Forming Galaxies: Universal Processes? , year = 2016, editor =

    On the Variation of Gas Depletion Time. From Interstellar Clouds to Star-Forming Galaxies: Universal Processes? , year = 2016, editor =. doi:10.1017/S1743921316007596 , archivePrefix =. 1511.02857 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1017/s1743921316007596 2016

  48. [48]

    Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833910 , archivePrefix =. 1807.06209 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833910 2018

  49. [49]

    Encyclopedia of Astrophysics, Volume 2 , year = 2026, volume =

    The initial mass function of stars. Encyclopedia of Astrophysics, Volume 2 , year = 2026, volume =. doi:10.1016/B978-0-443-21439-4.00035-3 , archivePrefix =. 2410.07311 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-21439-4.00035-3 2026

  50. [50]

    , keywords =

    Stellar population synthesis models with a physically varying IMF. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/staf091 , archivePrefix =. 2502.03529 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staf091

  51. [51]

    Universe , keywords =

    The Relevance of Dynamical Friction for the MW/LMC/SMC Triple System. Universe , keywords =. doi:10.3390/universe10030143 , archivePrefix =. 2403.17999 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3390/universe10030143

  52. [52]

    arXiv e-prints , keywords =

    The many tensions with dark-matter based models and implications on the nature of the Universe. School and Workshops on Elementary Particle Physics and Gravity , year = 2023, month = jan, eid =. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2309.11552 , archivePrefix =. 2309.11552 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2309.11552 2023

  53. [53]

    Canadian Journal of Physics , keywords =

    Galaxies as simple dynamical systems: observational data disfavor dark matter and stochastic star formation. Canadian Journal of Physics , keywords =. doi:10.1139/cjp-2014-0179 , archivePrefix =. 1406.4860 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1139/cjp-2014-0179 2014

  54. [54]

    , keywords =

    The formation of early-type galaxies through monolithic collapse of gas clouds in Milgromian gravity. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2229 , archivePrefix =. 2209.00024 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2229

  55. [55]

    , keywords =

    Why should models of dwarf galaxy evolution care about the initial mass function at low star-formation rates?. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2787 , archivePrefix =. 2309.04714 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2787

  56. [56]

    , keywords =

    Constraints on the star formation histories of galaxies in the Local Cosmological Volume. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1851 , archivePrefix =. 2007.07905 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1851 2007

  57. [57]

    , keywords =

    The baryonic Tully-Fisher relation for different velocity definitions and implications for galaxy angular momentum. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz205 , archivePrefix =. 1901.05966 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz205 1901

  58. [58]

    , keywords =

    The Baryonic Tully-Fisher Relation. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/312628 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0003001 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/312628

  59. [59]

    , keywords =

    The synchronized dance of the magellanic clouds' star formation history. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slac030 , archivePrefix =. 2203.09523 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slac030

  60. [60]

    , keywords =

    The Star Formation History of Nearby Galaxies: A Machine Learning Approach. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad87f3 , archivePrefix =. 2410.12253 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad87f3

  61. [61]

    M., van den Bosch, F

    The ages and metallicities of galaxies in the local universe. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09321.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0506539 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09321.x 2005

  62. [62]

    EAS Publications Series , year = 2007, editor =

    Massive Stars: Their Contribution to Energy and Element Budget in Chemo-Dynamical Galaxy Evolution. EAS Publications Series , year = 2007, editor =. doi:10.1051/eas:2007018 , archivePrefix =. 0709.0631 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/eas:2007018 2007

  63. [63]

    , keywords =

    Clustered star formation as a natural explanation for the H cut-off in disk galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1038/nature07266 , archivePrefix =. 0905.0898 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1038/nature07266

  64. [64]

    , keywords =

    The fate of heavy elements in dwarf galaxies - the role of mass and geometry. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220845 , archivePrefix =. 1301.0812 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220845

  65. [65]

    , keywords =

    Galactic Winds in Low-mass Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4c37 , archivePrefix =. 1910.04167 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4c37 1910

  66. [66]

    Begeman, K. G. and Broeils, A. H. and Sanders, R. H. , title =. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society , volume =. 1991 , month =. doi:10.1093/mnras/249.3.523 , url =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/249.3.523 1991

  67. [67]

    , keywords =

    Galaxies appear simpler than expected. , keywords =. doi:10.1038/nature07366 , archivePrefix =. 0811.1554 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1038/nature07366

  68. [68]

    , keywords =

    One Law to Rule Them All: The Radial Acceleration Relation of Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/2/152 , archivePrefix =. 1610.08981 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/2/152

  69. [69]

    The complexity of galaxy populations at 0.4 < z < 1.3 revealed with unsupervised machine-learning algorithms

    The VIMOS Public Extragalactic Redshift Survey (VIPERS). The complexity of galaxy populations at 0.4 < z < 1.3 revealed with unsupervised machine-learning algorithms. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832784 , archivePrefix =. 1805.09904 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832784

  70. [70]

    arXiv e-prints , keywords =

    Cosmic Threads: Interlinking the Stellar Initial Mass Function from Star-Birth to Galaxies. arXiv e-prints , keywords =. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2509.06886 , archivePrefix =. 2509.06886 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2509.06886

  71. [71]

    2021, MNRAS, 508, 926, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab2553

    Fast galaxy bars continue to challenge standard cosmology. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stab2553 , archivePrefix =. 2106.10304 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab2553

  72. [72]

    , keywords =

    The evolution of CNO isotopes: a new window on cosmic star formation history and the stellar IMF in the age of ALMA. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1197 , archivePrefix =. 1704.06701 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1197

  73. [73]

    Universe , keywords =

    Dynamical Friction Constraints on the Dark Matter Hypothesis Across Astronomical Scales. Universe , keywords =. doi:10.3390/universe11110367 , archivePrefix =. 2511.03776 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3390/universe11110367

  74. [74]

    GalCEM. I. An Open-source Detailed Isotopic Chemical Evolution Code. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aca7c7 , archivePrefix =. 2301.02257 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aca7c7

  75. [75]

    Analytic solution of chemical evolution models with Type Ia supernovae. I. Disc bimodality in the [ /Fe] versus [Fe/H] plane and other applications. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346567 , archivePrefix =. 2304.00042 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346567

  76. [76]

    2009, MNRAS, 395, 1391, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.14471.x

    Chemical enrichment in cosmological, smoothed particle hydrodynamics simulations. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15331.x , archivePrefix =. 0902.1535 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15331.x 2009

  77. [77]

    Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics , keywords =

    Massive Star Formation at Supersolar Metallicities: Constraints on the Initial Mass Function. Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics , keywords =. doi:10.1088/1674-4527/ae1f79 , archivePrefix =. 2509.20440 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/1674-4527/ae1f79

  78. [78]

    Galaxies , keywords =

    Scaling Relations of Early-Type Galaxies in MOND. Galaxies , keywords =. doi:10.3390/galaxies13020022 , archivePrefix =. 2503.15600 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3390/galaxies13020022

  79. [79]

    Chronology of our Galaxy from Gaia colour-magnitude diagram fitting (ChronoGal). I. The formation and evolution of the thin disc from the Gaia Catalogue of Nearby Stars. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202349078 , archivePrefix =. 2402.09399 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202349078

  80. [80]

    Unveiling the formation and evolution of the kinematically selected thick and thin discs

    Chronology of our Galaxy from Gaia colour─magnitude diagram fitting (ChronoGal): II. Unveiling the formation and evolution of the kinematically selected thick and thin discs. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202553814 , archivePrefix =. 2503.19536 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202553814

Showing first 80 references.