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arxiv: 2605.15310 · v1 · pith:JDPSO3GJnew · submitted 2026-05-14 · 🌌 astro-ph.CO · astro-ph.GA

Introducing the Lumina project: large-volume radiation-hydrodynamic simulations of the epochs of hydrogen and helium reionization

Oliver Zier , Aaron Smith , Xuejian Shen , Rongrong Liu , Rahul Kannan , Sonja M. Koehler , Volker Springel , R\"udiger Pakmor
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Mark Vogelsberger Teodora-Elena Bulichi Lars Hernquist
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-19 16:09 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.CO astro-ph.GA
keywords reionizationradiation hydrodynamicscosmological simulationsintergalactic mediumhydrogen reionizationhelium reionizationactive galactic nucleigalaxy formation
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The pith

Lumina simulation shows hydrogen reionization mostly finished by galaxies at z~5.2 with helium reionization by AGN nearly complete at z=3.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper presents the Lumina simulation, which follows the joint evolution of galaxies, AGN, and the intergalactic medium through hydrogen and helium reionization in a large cosmological volume. It couples the IllustrisTNG galaxy formation model to a radiation transport solver to track how stars and black holes ionize the universe self-consistently down to redshift 3. The run finds that stellar sources drive a late hydrogen reionization, with most regions ionized by z approximately 5.2 but some neutral patches remaining until z approximately 4.75, while AGN drive helium reionization that finishes around z=3. These timelines produce an optical depth to Thomson scattering that matches Planck measurements and an IGM thermal history consistent with observations. The large box size improves statistics on rare objects and environments compared with smaller simulations while preserving the galaxy population from the original IllustrisTNG model.

Core claim

Lumina evolves a 500 cMpc comoving volume with 2 times 6000 cubed resolution elements using the AREPO moving-mesh code, the IllustrisTNG galaxy-formation model, and a GPU-accelerated six-bin M1 radiation-transport solver. It predicts a late, predominantly stellar-driven hydrogen reionization with the median sub-volume fully ionized by z approximately 5.2 and residual neutral HI patches persisting until z approximately 4.75. HeII reionization is driven self-consistently by AGN and is nearly complete by z=3, producing a Thomson-scattering optical depth in excellent agreement with Planck, an IGM thermal history and photoionization background broadly consistent with constraints, and a clear late

What carries the argument

The 500 cMpc moving-mesh AREPO simulation that couples the IllustrisTNG galaxy-formation model to a six-bin M1 radiation-transport solver to evolve HI, HeI, and HeII ionization states together with galaxies and AGN.

If this is right

  • The simulation produces a Thomson-scattering optical depth that matches Planck observations.
  • A clear thermal boost appears in the IGM temperature during HeII reionization near z=3.
  • The galaxy population remains consistent with the original IllustrisTNG project while providing better statistics for rare objects and cosmic variance.
  • Forward modeling of observables that link HI and HeII ionization topologies to evolving galaxy and AGN populations becomes possible.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the photon escape fractions are correctly predicted without extra tuning, then reionization observations could directly constrain the feedback prescriptions inside the IllustrisTNG model.
  • The 500 cMpc volume makes it feasible to quantify how large-scale environment affects the timing of reionization patches, an effect that smaller boxes cannot capture reliably.
  • Outputs from the run could be used to predict the 21-cm brightness temperature field or the Lyman-alpha transmission during the final stages of reionization for comparison with upcoming radio and optical surveys.

Load-bearing premise

The IllustrisTNG galaxy-formation model, when coupled to the six-bin M1 radiation transport solver, accurately captures the escape of ionizing photons from galaxies and AGN without requiring additional tuning beyond the original TNG calibration.

What would settle it

A measurement of the volume-averaged neutral hydrogen fraction at z=4.8 that shows either full ionization or significantly more neutral gas than the simulation's residual patches would contradict the predicted reionization timeline.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.15310 by Aaron Smith, Lars Hernquist, Mark Vogelsberger, Oliver Zier, Rahul Kannan, Rongrong Liu, R\"udiger Pakmor, Sonja M. Koehler, Teodora-Elena Bulichi, Volker Springel, Xuejian Shen.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Projected baryonic density (gas + stars) in a multi-scale zoom-in centred on the most massive halo in Lumina at 𝑧 = 3 (𝑀200,crit = 5.6 × 1013 M⊙). The four panels show regions of side length 500 cMpc, 50 cMpc, 5 cMpc, and 500 ckpc, respectively. The white square in each panel marks the region shown in the next zoom level. The figure illustrates the embedding of the halo in the cosmic web, its filamentary g… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: A multi-scale view of Lumina at 𝑧 ≃ 4. The main panel shows projected gas distribution in a slice of the simulation volume with thickness 150 cMpc. It is color-coded by the mass-weighted He iii fraction, while transparency encodes the gas surface density. We first zoom in on a sub-field of 60 × 60 cMpc2 , showing a large He iii bubble around a cluster of massive galaxies. Then we further zoom in on four se… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Spectral energy distributions (SEDs) for the four radiation sources used in this work: a 1 Myr-old, 0.25 Z⊙ stellar population from BPASS v2.2.1 (blue); an AGN from Shen et al. (2020) (green); a shock-heated ISM component described by Eq. 16 with effective temperature 𝑘B𝑇 = 240 eV (red); and an HMXB at 𝑧 = 10 from Fragos et al. (2013b) (cyan). All SEDs are normalised over the simulated energy band 13.6 eV–… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Schematic view of the modifications applied at the transition from hydrogen to helium reionization at 𝑧 = 4.75. We increase the number of radiative￾transfer subcycles from 64 to 256, switch from six frequency bins to a single bin tracking the ionization of He ii, and restrict the radiation sources to AGN only. Metals from star particles are deposited into the single nearest Voronoi cell rather than spread … view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Linear matter power spectra from camb (Lewis et al. 2000; Howlett et al. 2012) at the initial redshift 𝑧 = 49 used in our simulation. The upper panel shows the absolute spectra for cold dark matter (CDM), baryons, and their total; the lower panel shows the corresponding ratios with respect to the total spectrum. The baryon spectrum is clearly suppressed on all scales. In Lumina we generate initial conditio… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Power spectrum of a two-component glass with two times 643 particles, showing the characteristic 𝑃(𝑘) ∝ 𝑘 4 spectrum (dashed inclined line) below the Nyquist frequency for the total particle distribution, while the two subcomponents all drop off with 𝑃(𝑘) ∝ 𝑘 2 (dotted line). At the Nyquist frequency itself, the power is suppressed by about a factor 1/0.0032 ≃ 310 below the shot-noise, and the suppression … view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Comparison of the simulated volume and baryonic mass resolu￾tion of Lumina with other state-of-the-art galaxy-formation simulations. We include simulations evolved to 𝑧 = 0 without on-the-fly radiative transfer: TNG50, TNG100, and TNG300 from the IllustrisTNG suite; MTNG (Pak￾mor et al. 2023); ASTRID (Ni et al. 2022); and the three highest-resolution COLIBRE runs (Schaye et al. 2026), namely COLIBRE:L050m5… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Matter power spectra in Lumina at 𝑧 = 20, 10, 5, and 3. Top: absolute power spectra 𝑃(𝑘) for gas, cold dark matter (CDM), and total matter, compared to linear-theory predictions from camb (solid curves). Bottom: ratios of the measured spectra to the linear-theory total-matter prediction. Lumina reproduces the expected large-scale suppression of baryonic power relative to CDM. Vertical dashed lines mark the… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Evolution of the star-formation rate density as a function of redshift. We compare our results with Thesan-1 and Thesan-2 (Kannan et al. 2022), with TNG100 (the original calibration target of the IllustrisTNG project; Pillepich et al. 2018b), and with the largest run of the MillenniumTNG project (Pakmor et al. 2023). Higher resolution allows star formation to be resolved in smaller haloes and therefore pro… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Galaxy stellar mass functions in Lumina at 𝑧 ≃ 3–10. Results from TNG100 and MTNG are shown for reference, illustrating the impact of simulation volume and resolution across the full stellar-mass range. The three simulations show reasonable convergence within their shared dynamic range. The sharp cut-offs at the low-mass end reflect the resolution limits. We also compare the Lumina predictions with the ob… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Galaxy star-formation main sequence in Lumina at 𝑧 ≃ 3–10, with results from TNG100 and MTNG shown for reference. We compare the Lumina predictions with the latest JWST measurements from Simmonds et al. (2025); Clarke et al. (2025); Mérida et al. (2026), together with the pre-JWST constraints from Speagle et al. (2014); Popesso et al. (2023). The comparison highlights the level of agreement between the si… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Galaxy stellar-mass–halo-mass relations in Lumina at 𝑧 ≃ 3–10, which can also be interpreted as the integrated star-formation efficiency. Results from TNG100 and MTNG are shown for reference and demonstrate that the galaxy stellar mass is converged with respect to numerical resolution. We compare the simulations with the observation-based constraints of Behroozi et al. (2013, 2019); Rodríguez-Puebla et al… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Galaxy gas-phase mass–metallicity relations in Lumina at 𝑧 ≃ 3–10, compared with TNG100 and MTNG. Lumina and TNG100 predict consistent metallicities, both of which are higher than MTNG owing to its lower resolution. The change in the metal-injection scheme at 𝑧 = 4.75 discussed in Section 2 produces no noticeable signature in the mass–metallicity relation. We also compare with the observational constraint… view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Bolometric AGN luminosity functions in Lumina at 𝑧 ≃ 3–5, compared with TNG100 and MTNG. Lumina agrees with MTNG at the bright end, while at the faint end MTNG predicts lower AGN number densities owing to its lower resolution. Lumina is more consistent with TNG100, but slightly underpredicts the abundance of faint AGN at 𝑧 ∼ 5, where BH masses are still close to the seeding scale. We compare Lumina with t… view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Hydrogen reionization redshift in a single-cell slice through the midplane of the simulation box. We define the reionization redshift of each grid cell as the last time at which the local neutral-hydrogen fraction exceeded 1%, using a Cartesian grid with resolution 12803 . gas metallicities using log(𝑍gas/𝑍⊙) = 12 + log(O/H) − 8.69, with 𝑍⊙ = 0.0139 from Asplund et al. (2021). Lumina agrees well with TNG1… view at source ↗
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Volume-weighted H ii fraction (top) and gas temperature (bottom) in a single-cell slice through the midplane of the Lumina volume, computed on the 12803 Cartesian grid. The columns correspond to the early (⟨𝑥H ii⟩𝑉 = 0.1), intermediate (⟨𝑥H ii⟩𝑉 = 0.5), and late (⟨𝑥H ii⟩𝑉 = 0.9) stages of reionization. At early times, reionization proceeds through small ionized bubbles around individual galaxies that subs… view at source ↗
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Evolution of the volume-weighted H i photoionization rate ΓHI, measured in ionized regions (𝑥HII > 0.5) and restricted to gas with 𝑛H < 0.106 cm−3 . We show Lumina together with Thesan-1 and Thesan-2 (Garaldi et al. 2022), the UV-background models of Faucher-Giguère et al. (2009, December 2011 update), Faucher-Giguère (2020), Haardt & Madau (2012), and Puchwein et al. (2019), and the observational constra… view at source ↗
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Top: global emissivity for each radiation bin and source class as a function of redshift 𝑧. Bottom: fractional contribution of each source class to the photoionization rate of H i, He i, and He ii. We show the instantaneous value (solid) as well as the cumulative contribution (dashed). Stars dominate the H i- and He i-ionizing bins over the redshift range shown; AGN dominate the He ii-ionizing bin below 𝑧… view at source ↗
Figure 20
Figure 20. Figure 20: He ii reionization redshift in a single-cell slice through the midplane of the simulation box. We define the reionization redshift of each grid cell as the last time at which its volume-weighted He iii fraction fell below 90%, evaluated on a 12803 Cartesian grid (equivalent to a top-hat smoothing on 390 ckpc cubes). The grey regions are not yet ionized at 𝑧 = 3. onset of He ii reionization overlaps with t… view at source ↗
Figure 21
Figure 21. Figure 21: Volume-weighted He iii fraction (top) and gas temperature (bottom) in a single-cell slice through the midplane of the Lumina volume, computed on the 12803 Cartesian grid. The columns correspond to the early (⟨𝑥He iii⟩𝑉 = 0.1), intermediate (⟨𝑥He iii⟩𝑉 = 0.5), and late (⟨𝑥He iii⟩𝑉 = 0.9) stages of reionization. Unlike H i reionization, He ii reionization is driven by a smaller number of large bubbles power… view at source ↗
Figure 23
Figure 23. Figure 23: Evolution of the volume-weighted He ii photoionization rate, ΓHeII, measured from gas cells with 𝑛H < 0.106 cm−3 . For comparison we also show the uniform UV-background models of Haardt & Madau (2012), Faucher-Giguère et al. (2009), Faucher-Giguère (2020), and Puchwein et al. (2019). The assumption of a uniform UVB makes a direct quantitative com￾parison difficult before the end of He ii reionization. spa… view at source ↗
Figure 22
Figure 22. Figure 22: Redshift evolution of the volume-averaged sum of the neutral and singly ionised helium fractions in Lumina (green). We partition the simulation volume into 125 sub-boxes of side length 100 cMpc and compute the reionization history of each independently. The solid green line shows the median across sub-boxes, and the shaded bands mark the central 68.3% and 95.4% intervals. The red and blue curves trace the… view at source ↗
Figure 24
Figure 24. Figure 24: Temperature at mean density, 𝑇0 (𝑧). Top: the simulation volume is divided into 125 sub-boxes of side length 100 cMpc, and 𝑇0 is determined independently in each. The green curve shows the median over all sub-boxes, with shaded bands marking the 15.87th–84.13th and 2.275th–97.725th per￾centile ranges. The red and blue curves denote the maximum and minimum values across sub-boxes. Observational constraints… view at source ↗
Figure 25
Figure 25. Figure 25: Temperature–number-density phase diagram of all gas in Lumina at three redshifts: early hydrogen reionization, near the completion of hydrogen reionization, and near the completion of He ii reionization. The pixel colour encodes the gas mass per logarithmic bin in 𝑛H and 𝑇, d𝑀/(d log10 𝑛H d log10 𝑇), in units of M⊙ dex−2 . In all panels the star-forming equation of state is visible above the density thres… view at source ↗
Figure 26
Figure 26. Figure 26: CMB optical depth 𝜏CMB (𝑧), compared with the constraint from Planck Collaboration et al. (2020, TT,TE,EE+lowE) (grey band, 1𝜎). We use Eq. (33) together with the simulated electron density for 𝑧 > 3, and assume full ionization of H and He for 𝑧 < 3. We compare Lumina with Thesan-1 and Thesan-2 from the original Thesan suite. Lumina shows nearly perfect agreement with Thesan-2, while Thesan-1 yields a sli… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Understanding how galaxies and active galactic nuclei (AGN) jointly drive the reionization of the intergalactic medium (IGM) across cosmic time remains a major challenge in cosmology. We present Lumina, a large-volume radiation-hydrodynamic simulation that self-consistently follows the coupled evolution of the intergalactic medium, galaxies, and AGN through HI, HeI, and HeII reionization down to redshift $z=3$. Lumina evolves a cosmological volume of comoving side length $L_{\mathrm{box}}=500\,\mathrm{cMpc}$ with $2\times 6000^{3}$ resolution elements, corresponding to baryonic and dark-matter mass resolutions of $3.6\times 10^{6}\,\text{M}_{\odot}$ and $1.9\times 10^{7}\,\text{M}_{\odot}$, respectively. The simulation uses the moving-mesh code AREPO, combining the IllustrisTNG galaxy-formation model with a GPU-accelerated M1 radiation-transport solver in six frequency bins. The initial conditions employ separate transfer functions for baryons and dark matter and include their relative streaming velocity. Lumina predicts a late, predominantly stellar-driven hydrogen reionization, with the median sub-volume fully ionized by $z\approx 5.2$ and residual neutral HI patches persisting until $z\approx 4.75$. HeII reionization is driven self-consistently by AGN and is nearly complete by $z=3$. The simulation yields a Thomson-scattering optical depth in excellent agreement with Planck, an IGM thermal history and photoionization background broadly consistent with observational constraints, and a clear late-time thermal boost associated with HeII reionization. Its galaxy population remains consistent with the original IllustrisTNG project, while the larger volume improves statistics for rare objects, large-scale environments, and cosmic variance, enabling forward modelling of observables linking HI and HeII topologies to the evolving galaxy and AGN populations.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript introduces the Lumina simulation: a 500 cMpc comoving volume radiation-hydrodynamic run with AREPO that couples the IllustrisTNG galaxy-formation model to a GPU-accelerated six-bin M1 radiation-transport solver. It evolves galaxies, AGN, and the IGM self-consistently through HI, HeI, and HeII reionization to z=3, reporting a late, predominantly stellar-driven hydrogen reionization (median sub-volume ionized by z≈5.2, residual neutral patches to z≈4.75) with AGN-driven HeII reionization nearly complete by z=3. The run yields Thomson optical depth in agreement with Planck, an IGM thermal history and photoionization background consistent with observations, and a late-time thermal boost from HeII reionization, while preserving consistency with the original IllustrisTNG galaxy population.

Significance. If the reionization timelines hold, the work supplies a valuable large-volume, self-consistent platform for forward-modeling observables that link HI/HeII topologies to evolving galaxy and AGN populations, with improved statistics for rare objects and cosmic variance relative to smaller-box simulations. The self-consistent AGN treatment for HeII reionization and the reported thermal boost constitute clear strengths; the Planck τ agreement provides a useful integrated check.

major comments (2)
  1. [Simulation setup and galaxy-formation model coupling] The central claim of a late, stellar-driven hydrogen reionization midpoint at z≈5.2 rests on the effective escape fraction of ionizing photons produced by the untuned IllustrisTNG ISM+feedback model at baryonic mass resolution 3.6×10^6 M⊙. Galaxies ≲10^8 M⊙, which dominate the high-z photon budget, are only marginally resolved; their ISM porosity and outflows (hence f_esc) are therefore set by numerical rather than physical scales. No convergence tests or resolution-variation runs are presented to quantify how a factor-of-two shift in emergent f_esc would move the reionization midpoint. This directly affects the headline timeline prediction.
  2. [Results on reionization timelines and observational comparisons] Consistency with Planck τ and broad IGM thermal-history constraints is reported, yet these are integrated quantities that can be satisfied by compensating errors between source strength and IGM clumping. The manuscript does not supply quantitative error bars on the neutral-fraction evolution, direct comparisons to Lyman-α forest transmission statistics, or sensitivity tests that would demonstrate the timeline is robust rather than tuned by the integrated observables.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] The abstract states 'excellent agreement with Planck' without quoting the simulated τ value or the precise observational constraint used; the main text should provide this numerical comparison.
  2. [Methods] Notation for the six frequency bins and the precise frequency boundaries of the M1 solver should be defined explicitly in the methods section for reproducibility.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their thoughtful and constructive review of our manuscript on the Lumina simulation. We address each major comment point by point below, indicating where revisions will be made to strengthen the presentation.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Simulation setup and galaxy-formation model coupling] The central claim of a late, stellar-driven hydrogen reionization midpoint at z≈5.2 rests on the effective escape fraction of ionizing photons produced by the untuned IllustrisTNG ISM+feedback model at baryonic mass resolution 3.6×10^6 M⊙. Galaxies ≲10^8 M⊙, which dominate the high-z photon budget, are only marginally resolved; their ISM porosity and outflows (hence f_esc) are therefore set by numerical rather than physical scales. No convergence tests or resolution-variation runs are presented to quantify how a factor-of-two shift in emergent f_esc would move the reionization midpoint. This directly affects the headline timeline prediction.

    Authors: We agree that galaxies below ~10^8 M⊙ are only marginally resolved at the adopted baryonic mass resolution and that the emergent f_esc is influenced by numerical scales in the ISM and feedback modeling. The IllustrisTNG galaxy-formation model was calibrated to reproduce a range of galaxy observables, but we acknowledge that dedicated resolution-variation runs for the full 500 cMpc volume are computationally prohibitive. In the revised manuscript we will add a dedicated subsection in the methods and discussion sections that (i) quantifies the mass resolution relative to the characteristic galaxy mass at z>6, (ii) cites existing convergence studies of f_esc within the TNG framework at higher resolution, and (iii) estimates the plausible range of reionization midpoint shifts under a factor-of-two variation in effective f_esc while preserving consistency with the stellar mass function. This will make the limitations and robustness of the timeline prediction more transparent. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Results on reionization timelines and observational comparisons] Consistency with Planck τ and broad IGM thermal-history constraints is reported, yet these are integrated quantities that can be satisfied by compensating errors between source strength and IGM clumping. The manuscript does not supply quantitative error bars on the neutral-fraction evolution, direct comparisons to Lyman-α forest transmission statistics, or sensitivity tests that would demonstrate the timeline is robust rather than tuned by the integrated observables.

    Authors: We note that the galaxy and AGN source models are taken directly from the calibrated IllustrisTNG framework without additional tuning to reionization observables; the reionization history therefore emerges self-consistently. The manuscript already reports the neutral-fraction evolution using the median and range across sub-volumes, which captures cosmic variance. In the revision we will (i) add explicit 16–84 percentile error bands derived from the sub-volume analysis to the neutral-fraction figure, (ii) include a direct comparison of the simulated Lyman-α forest transmission statistics (effective optical depth and transmission spikes) against observational compilations at z≈5–6, and (iii) expand the discussion of robustness by showing that the same source model reproduces the original TNG galaxy population at lower redshifts. These additions will address the concern about compensating errors and provide a more quantitative validation of the timeline. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; reionization timelines are emergent simulation outputs

full rationale

The paper describes a forward radiation-hydrodynamic simulation (Lumina) that evolves a 500 cMpc volume from initial conditions using the pre-existing IllustrisTNG galaxy-formation model coupled to a six-bin M1 solver. The headline results—median sub-volume HI ionization by z≈5.2, residual neutral patches to z≈4.75, and AGN-driven HeII reionization by z=3—are direct numerical outcomes of integrating the coupled equations, not obtained by fitting any parameters to reionization observables inside this work. The TNG sub-grid model was calibrated in prior independent studies to z≈0 stellar mass function and SFR data; no reionization-specific retuning of escape fractions or efficiencies occurs here. Self-citations to TNG papers exist but are not load-bearing for the timing claims, as the simulation supplies new, externally falsifiable forward predictions at the stated resolution. No self-definitional, fitted-input-renamed-as-prediction, or ansatz-smuggled steps appear in the derivation chain.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

2 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The simulation rests on the standard Lambda-CDM cosmology, the calibrated IllustrisTNG subgrid physics, and the M1 closure for radiation transport. No new particles or forces are introduced.

free parameters (2)
  • six frequency bins for radiation
    Chosen to capture HI and HeI/HeII ionization edges; the exact bin boundaries are a modeling choice.
  • baryonic mass resolution 3.6e6 Msun
    Numerical resolution parameter that controls which galaxies are resolved.
axioms (2)
  • standard math Standard Lambda-CDM initial conditions with separate baryon and dark-matter transfer functions plus relative streaming velocity
    Invoked in the initial conditions section of the abstract.
  • domain assumption IllustrisTNG galaxy formation model accurately describes star formation and AGN feedback in the presence of radiation
    The simulation combines the existing TNG model with radiation transport without additional recalibration mentioned.

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