pith. sign in

arxiv: 2606.11292 · v1 · pith:EAQ4CMJ4new · submitted 2026-06-09 · 🌌 astro-ph.EP

Revealing the Origin of Desert Dwellers via Stellar Obliquities

Tim Hallatt , James E. Owen , Sarah Millholland This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-27 11:35 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.EP
keywords hot Neptune desertRoche lobe overflowstellar obliquityspin-orbit alignmentexoplanet destructiongas giant remnants
0
0 comments X

The pith

Roche lobe overflow during gas giant destruction aligns host star spins with remnant planet orbits.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper models how mass and angular momentum flow from an overflowing planet to its star and shows this flow drives the star's spin axis into alignment with the planet's orbit. Alignment occurs within tens of degrees for almost any starting obliquity when the transfer carries away most of the orbital angular momentum. The same process can leave some stars slowly rotating if the initial orbit was strongly retrograde, matching the observed slow spin of LTT 9779. Because high-eccentricity migration tends to leave a broader range of obliquities, the predicted alignment offers an observable signature that can separate the two destruction channels.

Core claim

Lossy Roche lobe overflow tilts host stars into spin-orbit alignment within a few tens of degrees regardless of initial conditions; the alignment is reversed only by misaligned companion planets inside about 2 au. Retrograde cases of the same mass transfer produce slowly rotating stars, reconciling theory with the anomalously slow host of LTT 9779.

What carries the argument

Lossy Roche lobe overflow, the regime in which most of the planet's orbital angular momentum is removed during planet-to-star mass transfer.

If this is right

  • Desert-dweller systems should show low stellar obliquities.
  • Misaligned companions inside 2 au are the only way to produce high-obliquity desert dwellers under this channel.
  • Some host stars can finish RLO as slow rotators when the initial orbit is retrograde.
  • The resulting obliquity distribution differs from the broad distribution expected after high-eccentricity migration.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Obliquity measurements of known desert systems could map which planets arrived via RLO versus other routes.
  • The same alignment signature may appear in other close-in sub-Neptune populations if they also experienced lossy mass transfer.

Load-bearing premise

Mass transfer during Roche lobe overflow removes most of the planet's orbital angular momentum.

What would settle it

A desert dweller found with stellar obliquity above a few tens of degrees and no misaligned companion inside 2 au would contradict the alignment prediction.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.11292 by James E. Owen, Sarah Millholland, Tim Hallatt.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Schematic of a hot Jupiter undergoing “lossy” Roche lobe overflow. The host star spin angular momentum vector S⋆ is misaligned with the planet’s orbital angular momentum L by obliquity ψ⋆. Outflowing gas passes through a nozzle at the first Lagrange point (dotted ellipse), before coupling to the stellar magnetic field (in red) at the Alfv´en radius; accreting gas is funneled along field lines onto the magn… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Dynamical evolution of a star/hot Jupiter system through Roche lobe overflow. From top to bottom, left panels depict: planet mass (left axis; black) and radius (right axis; blue), and obliquity. From top to bottom, right panels show: angular momenta in natural units (orbital angular momentum in orange, stellar spin angular momentum in black), and period (orbital in salmon, stellar spin in black). Solid cur… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Evolution of fully retrograde systems (initial ψ⋆=180◦ ) during RLO. Two examples are displayed: a very fast rotator (solid lines, with P⋆=1 day; L<S⋆) and mod￾erately fast (dashed lines, P⋆=5 days; L∼S⋆). This exam￾ple uses an initial planet mass and entropy 150 M⊕ and S=8 kB/mH respectively, Q⋆=5×104 , and employs a vari￾able angular momentum transfer fraction, β(RA). Stellar spin down during orbital ins… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Stellar obliquity (ψ⋆) distributions sculpted by RLO. Blue histograms (cos ψ⋆ uniformly sampled in [-1,1]) are processed by RLO into the orange distributions. We adjust the initial angular momenta budget for each ensemble by varying initial planet mass and stellar rotation period. Leftmost panels use an initial stellar rotation period P⋆=5 days, and assume perfect transfer of angular momentum during mass t… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Precession frequency evolution versus orbital pe￾riod following mass transfer. Following Lai et al. (2018), when torque from an external planet disrupts star/inner planet precession (ω⋆P(1+S⋆/L)∼ωPC), the inner planet’s obliquity may be excited. Blue/orange curves depict ω⋆P(1+S⋆/L) for fast/slow rotating stars (see legend), while dashed/solid curves correspond to 300 and 20 M⊕ inner planets, respectively.… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Schematic of population-level expectations for desert dweller occurrence (vertical axis) versus stellar properties (stellar mass M⋆ and age t in xy plane), in the lossy RLO (orange) and high eccentricity migration (blue) pictures. In contrast to HEM, lossy RLO predicts that desert dwellers are emplaced over ∼Gyr due to long-term orbital decay from stellar tides. Lossy RLO also predicts that the sub-Jovian … view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: “Lossy” RLO of a hot Jupiter with a 10 M⊕ core as computed two different ways. Top to bottom, left panels: orbital period, photospheric radius Rp (RR is the Roche radius), and bulk density. Top to bottom, right panels: mass, mass loss rate, and entropy in the convective zone (innermost cell in MESA model). Light blue curves use the Hallatt & Millholland (2026a,b) “following the adiabats” structure/thermal … view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Post-RLO evolution of the planet from [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p018_9.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Observations suggest that the hot Neptune desert contains the remnants of destroyed gas giants. Recent theoretical work has shown that gas giant destruction via Roche lobe overflow (RLO) can indeed populate the desert with remnant planets, but only if mass transfer removes most of the planet's orbital angular momentum ("lossy" RLO). Motivated by the fact that stellar accretion naturally gives rise to such lossy RLO, in this Letter we examine how planet-to-star mass and angular momentum transfer manifests in the distribution of stellar obliquities. We find that RLO tilts host stars into spin/orbit alignment (within a few ${\sim}$tens of degrees) regardless of initial conditions. Obliquity damping by RLO can only be reversed by the presence of misaligned companion planets within ${\lesssim}$2 au. While tides and mass transfer usually produce stellar spin up, host stars can also emerge from RLO slowly rotating if systems begin strongly retrograde; retrograde RLO reconciles theory with the anomalously slow rotation of the desert dweller host, LTT 9779. Predicted spin/orbit alignment may differentiate RLO from alternative giant planet destruction mechanisms, in particular hot Jupiter disruption during high eccentricity migration (which tends to produce broadly distributed stellar obliquities). We summarize other population-level predictions that can further distinguish RLO from high eccentricity migration. Our work suggests that follow-up obliquity measurements may reveal the formation pathways of desert dwellers, and potentially open a window into gas giants' exposed interiors.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript argues that lossy Roche lobe overflow (RLO) during gas giant destruction populates the hot Neptune desert while driving host-star spin-orbit alignment to within a few tens of degrees regardless of initial conditions. Alignment damping is claimed to be reversible only by misaligned companions within ≲2 au; retrograde RLO is invoked to explain slow rotators such as LTT 9779; and obliquity measurements are proposed as a discriminant between RLO and high-eccentricity migration.

Significance. If the numerical results are robust, the work supplies an observable signature (near-alignment) that could distinguish RLO from alternative giant-planet destruction channels and thereby constrain the formation pathways of desert dwellers.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract / modeling description] The claim that alignment occurs 'regardless of initial conditions' (abstract) is load-bearing and rests entirely on the lossy-RLO assumption that mass transfer removes most of the planet's orbital angular momentum. The manuscript motivates this regime from stellar accretion but supplies no planet-specific derivation, torque calculation, or parameter sweep demonstrating that the specific angular momentum carried away by the transferred gas is high enough to produce the reported damping; a nearer-to-conservative transfer would change the torque on the stellar spin vector and could eliminate the alignment result.
  2. [Abstract / modeling description] The statement that obliquity damping 'can only be reversed by the presence of misaligned companion planets within ≲2 au' (abstract) is presented as a firm outcome of the modeling, yet no quantitative threshold or companion-mass dependence is shown; the result appears to depend on the same unexamined angular-momentum-loss prescription.
minor comments (2)
  1. The abstract states modeling results without equations, integration method, explored initial-condition ranges, or error analysis; these details should be supplied even in Letter format.
  2. The phrase 'a few ∼tens of degrees' should be replaced by the actual median or range of final obliquities obtained from the simulations.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive comments, which highlight areas where the modeling assumptions can be better justified. We address each major comment below and will revise the manuscript to incorporate additional derivations and quantitative details.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract / modeling description] The claim that alignment occurs 'regardless of initial conditions' (abstract) is load-bearing and rests entirely on the lossy-RLO assumption that mass transfer removes most of the planet's orbital angular momentum. The manuscript motivates this regime from stellar accretion but supplies no planet-specific derivation, torque calculation, or parameter sweep demonstrating that the specific angular momentum carried away by the transferred gas is high enough to produce the reported damping; a nearer-to-conservative transfer would change the torque on the stellar spin vector and could eliminate the alignment result.

    Authors: We agree that the lossy RLO assumption is central and that a planet-specific justification would strengthen the paper. The motivation from stellar accretion is noted in the manuscript, but we will add an appendix with a torque calculation for the planet-star mass transfer case and a parameter sweep over mass-transfer efficiencies (including values approaching conservative transfer) to demonstrate the range over which the alignment damping holds. This will explicitly address how the specific angular momentum loss produces the reported result. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Abstract / modeling description] The statement that obliquity damping 'can only be reversed by the presence of misaligned companion planets within ≲2 au' (abstract) is presented as a firm outcome of the modeling, yet no quantitative threshold or companion-mass dependence is shown; the result appears to depend on the same unexamined angular-momentum-loss prescription.

    Authors: We agree that the abstract phrasing would benefit from supporting quantitative details. The ≲2 au threshold and reversal condition are outcomes of our post-RLO N-body integrations, but we will expand the main text (and add a figure) to show the explicit dependence on companion mass, semi-major axis, and the angular-momentum-loss efficiency. This will clarify the conditions under which reversal occurs within the lossy RLO framework. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: alignment follows from angular-momentum equations under explicit lossy-RLO assumption

full rationale

The paper states lossy RLO (most orbital angular momentum removed during mass transfer) as an input assumption motivated by stellar accretion, then integrates the resulting torques on stellar spin and orbital angular momentum to obtain the alignment outcome. This is a forward dynamical calculation, not a self-definition, fitted-parameter prediction, or reduction to a self-citation. The cited prior work on desert population is external to the obliquity derivation and does not render the present equations tautological. The model remains falsifiable against observed obliquity distributions once the lossy assumption is granted.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the domain assumption of lossy RLO and on numerical modeling whose details are not provided in the abstract; no free parameters or invented entities are explicitly named.

free parameters (1)
  • initial obliquity and stellar rotation rates
    Model explores a range of starting conditions but reports outcome independent of them.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Mass transfer during RLO removes most of the planet's orbital angular momentum (lossy RLO)
    Invoked to enable desert population and alignment; motivated by stellar accretion but not derived here.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5803 in / 1243 out tokens · 24255 ms · 2026-06-27T11:35:57.267056+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

114 extracted references · 108 canonical work pages · 7 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    , keywords =

    Albrecht, S. H., Dawson, R. I., & Winn, J. N. 2022, PASP, 134, 082001, doi: 10.1088/1538-3873/ac6c09

    work page doi:10.1088/1538-3873/ac6c09 2022

  2. [2]

    R., Storch, N

    Anderson, K. R., Storch, N. I., & Lai, D. 2016, MNRAS, 456, 3671, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stv2906

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2906 2016

  3. [3]

    J., Lopez, T

    Armstrong, D. J., Lopez, T. A., Adibekyan, V., et al. 2020, Nature, 583, 39, doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2421-7

    work page doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2421-7 2020

  4. [4]

    2006, ApJ, 650, 394, doi: 10.1086/506011

    Arras, P., & Bildsten, L. 2006, ApJ, 650, 394, doi: 10.1086/506011

    work page doi:10.1086/506011 2006

  5. [5]

    2023, A&A, 674, A120, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202245237

    Attia, M., Bourrier, V., Delisle, J.-B., & Eggenberger, P. 2023, A&A, 674, A120, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202245237

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245237 2023

  6. [6]

    2018, ApJL, 866, L2, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/aade90

    Bailey, E., & Batygin, K. 2018, ApJL, 866, L2, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/aade90

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aade90 2018

  7. [7]

    2004, A&A, 419, L13, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20040129

    Baraffe, I., Selsis, F., Chabrier, G., et al. 2004, A&A, 419, L13, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20040129

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20040129 2004

  8. [8]

    , keywords =

    Barker, A. J., & Ogilvie, G. I. 2009, MNRAS, 395, 2268, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.14694.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.14694.x 2009

  9. [9]

    A., Weingrill, J., Fritzewski, D., Strassmeier, K

    Barnes, S. A., Weingrill, J., Fritzewski, D., Strassmeier, K. G., & Platais, I. 2016, ApJ, 823, 16, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/823/1/16 5 Available here. Beaug´ e, C., & Nesvorn´ y, D. 2013, ApJ, 763, 12, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/763/1/12

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-637x/823/1/16 2016

  10. [10]

    C., & White, R

    Beyer, A. C., & White, R. J. 2024, ApJ, 973, 28, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad6b0d

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad6b0d 2024

  11. [11]

    Orbital architecture orrery

    Bourrier, V., Attia, M., Mallonn, M., et al. 2023, A&A, 669, A63, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202245004

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245004 2023

  12. [12]

    2025, A&A, 701, A190, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202554856

    Bourrier, V., Steiner, M., Castro-Gonz´ alez, A., et al. 2025, A&A, 701, A190, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202554856

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202554856 2025

  13. [13]

    2017, MNRAS, 470, 1360, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx1277

    Bovy, J. 2017, MNRAS, 470, 1360, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx1277

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1277 2017

  14. [14]

    Campbell, C. G. 1984, MNRAS, 211, 83, doi: 10.1093/mnras/211.1.83

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/211.1.83 1984

  15. [15]

    2026, A&A, 707, A4, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202557186 Castro-Gonz´ alez, A., Bourrier, V., Lillo-Box, J., et al

    Carleo, I., Castro-Gonz´ alez, A., Pall´ e, E., et al. 2026, A&A, 707, A4, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202557186 Castro-Gonz´ alez, A., Bourrier, V., Lillo-Box, J., et al. 2024, A&A, 689, A250, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202450957

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202557186 2026

  16. [16]

    2025, ApJ, 994, 43, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae0cbf

    Murray-Clay, R. 2025, ApJ, 994, 43, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae0cbf

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae0cbf 2025

  17. [17]

    2023, A&A, 674, A67, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202346250

    Claret, A. 2023, A&A, 674, A67, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202346250

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346250 2023

  18. [18]

    1989, A&AS, 81, 37

    Claret, A., & Gimenez, A. 1989, A&AS, 81, 37

    1989

  19. [19]

    , keywords =

    Cropper, M. 1990, SSRv, 54, 195, doi: 10.1007/BF00177799 Tilted Stars in the Desert17 1 2P [days] 101 102 Mp [M ] 10 20 30 Rp [R ] Rp RR 10 4 101 106 - ˙Mp [M /Gyr] 1 2 3 time [Gyr] 0 5 10 [gcc] 1 2 3 time [Gyr] 6 8 10 S [kB/mH] 7.5 8.0 8.5 Figure 8.“Lossy” RLO of a hot Jupiter with a 10M ⊕ core as computed two different ways. Top to bottom, left panels: ...

    work page doi:10.1007/bf00177799 1990

  20. [20]

    J., Hadjigeorghiou, A., et al

    Cui, K., Armstrong, D. J., Hadjigeorghiou, A., et al. 2026, MNRAS, 546, stag022, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stag022

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stag022 2026

  21. [21]

    PASP , archivePrefix = "arXiv", eprint =

    Cumming, A., Butler, R. P., Marcy, G. W., et al. 2008, PASP, 120, 531, doi: 10.1086/588487

    work page doi:10.1086/588487 2008

  22. [22]

    Dawson, R. I. 2014, ApJL, 790, L31, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/790/2/L31

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/790/2/l31 2014

  23. [23]

    Origins of Hot Jupiters

    Dawson, R. I., & Johnson, J. A. 2018, ARA&A, 56, 175, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051853

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051853 2018

  24. [24]

    Dobbs-Dixon, I., Lin, D. N. C., & Mardling, R. A. 2004, ApJ, 610, 464, doi: 10.1086/421510

    work page doi:10.1086/421510 2004

  25. [25]

    J., Acu˜ na, L., et al

    Doyle, L., Armstrong, D. J., Acu˜ na, L., et al. 2025, MNRAS, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf670

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staf670 2025

  26. [26]

    2022, MNRAS, 517, 4916, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac2945

    El-Badry, K., Conroy, C., Fuller, J., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 517, 4916, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac2945

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2945 2022

  27. [27]

    POSEIDON I: The Dynamical Origins of Transiting Neptunes

    Espinoza-Retamal, J. I., Winn, J. N., Brahm, R., et al. 2026, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2602.18553, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2602.18553

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.18553 2026

  28. [28]

    2007, ApJ, 669, 1298, doi: 10.1086/521702

    Fabrycky, D., & Tremaine, S. 2007, ApJ, 669, 1298, doi: 10.1086/521702

    work page doi:10.1086/521702 2007

  29. [29]

    H., Naoz, S., Li, G., & Inzunza, N

    Faridani, T. H., Naoz, S., Li, G., & Inzunza, N. 2023, ApJ, 956, 90, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acf378 Fern´ andez Fern´ andez, J., Wheatley, P. J., King, G. W., &

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acf378 2023

  30. [30]

    Jenkins, J. S. 2024, MNRAS, 527, 911, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stad3263

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3263 2024

  31. [31]

    J., Rosenthal, L

    Fulton, B. J., Rosenthal, L. J., Hirsch, L. A., et al. 2021, ApJS, 255, 14, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/abfcc1

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/abfcc1 2021

  32. [32]

    Gallet, F., & Bouvier, J. 2013, A&A, 556, A36, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201321302 18Hallatt, Owen, & Millholland 2.0 2.5 3.0 Rp [R ] 10.0 10.1 10.2 Mp [M ] 3 5 7 time [Gyr] 0 5 10 [gcc] 3 5 7 time [Gyr] 10 3 10 2 10 1 100 - ˙Mp [M /Gyr] Figure 9.Post-RLO evolution of the planet from Figure 8 (note the differingxyaxes). OurMESAcalculation produces late-time ...

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321302 2013

  33. [33]

    W., Rubenzahl, R

    Giacalone, S., Howard, A. W., Rubenzahl, R. A., et al. 2025, PASP, 137, 074401, doi: 10.1088/1538-3873/adecc2

    work page doi:10.1088/1538-3873/adecc2 2025

  34. [34]

    , keywords =

    Goldreich, P., & Tremaine, S. 1979, ApJ, 233, 857, doi: 10.1086/157448 —. 1980, ApJ, 241, 425, doi: 10.1086/158356

    work page doi:10.1086/157448 1979

  35. [35]

    2011, ApJ, 732, 74, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/732/2/74

    Guillochon, J., Ramirez-Ruiz, E., & Lin, D. 2011, ApJ, 732, 74, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/732/2/74

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/732/2/74 2011

  36. [36]

    F., Millholland, S

    Gupta, A. F., Millholland, S. C., Im, H., et al. 2024, Nature, 632, 50, doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07688-3

    work page doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07688-3 2024

  37. [37]

    Hallatt, T., & Lee, E. J. 2020, ApJ, 904, 134, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/abc1d7 —. 2022, ApJ, 924, 9, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac32c9

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abc1d7 2020

  38. [38]

    2026a, ApJ, 997, 139, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/adfb75 —

    Hallatt, T., & Millholland, S. 2026a, ApJ, 997, 139, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/adfb75 —. 2026b, ApJ, 997, 138, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae129d

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adfb75

  39. [39]

    Hansen, B. M. S. 2017, MNRAS, 467, 1531, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx182

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx182 2017

  40. [40]

    W., & Ward, W

    Harris, A. W., & Ward, W. R. 1982, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 10, 61, doi: 10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.000425

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.000425 1982

  41. [41]

    and Millman, K

    Harris, C. R., Millman, K. J., van der Walt, S. J., et al. 2020, Nature, 585, 357, doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2

    work page doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2 2020

  42. [42]

    A., Staab, D., Barnes, J

    Haswell, C. A., Staab, D., Barnes, J. R., et al. 2020, Nature Astronomy, 4, 408, doi: 10.1038/s41550-019-0973-y

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-019-0973-y 2020

  43. [43]

    Hubbard, W. B. 1977, Icarus, 30, 305, doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(77)90164-6

    work page doi:10.1016/0019-1035(77)90164-6 1977

  44. [44]

    Hunter, J. D. 2007, Computing in Science & Engineering, 9, 90, doi: 10.1109/MCSE.2007.55

    work page doi:10.1109/mcse.2007.55 2007

  45. [45]

    E., Pavlyuchenkov, Y

    Ionov, D. E., Pavlyuchenkov, Y. N., & Shematovich, V. I. 2018, MNRAS, 476, 5639, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty626

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty626 2018

  46. [46]

    S., D´ ıaz, M

    Jenkins, J. S., D´ ıaz, M. R., Kurtovic, N. T., et al. 2020, Nature Astronomy, 4, 1148, doi: 10.1038/s41550-020-1142-z

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-020-1142-z 2020

  47. [47]

    Jia, S., & Spruit, H. C. 2017, MNRAS, 465, 149, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw1693

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1693 2017

  48. [48]

    R., Frank, J., & Whitehurst, R

    King, A. R., Frank, J., & Whitehurst, R. 1990, MNRAS, 244, 731

    1990

  49. [49]

    2023, MNRAS, 519, 5637, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac3684

    Knudstrup, E., Gandolfi, D., Nowak, G., et al. 2023, MNRAS, 519, 5637, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac3684

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3684 2023

  50. [50]

    Kraft, R. P. 1967, ApJ, 150, 551, doi: 10.1086/149359

    work page doi:10.1086/149359 1967

  51. [51]

    2014, ApJ, 783, 54, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/783/1/54

    Kurokawa, H., & Nakamoto, T. 2014, ApJ, 783, 54, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/783/1/54

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/783/1/54 2014

  52. [52]

    E., & Jackson, A

    Lai, D. 2012, MNRAS, 423, 486, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20893.x Tilted Stars in the Desert19

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20893.x 2012

  53. [53]

    R., & Pu, B

    Lai, D., Anderson, K. R., & Pu, B. 2018, MNRAS, 475, 5231, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty133

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty133 2018

  54. [54]

    K., Pethick, C

    Lamb, F. K., Pethick, C. J., & Pines, D. 1973, ApJ, 184, 271, doi: 10.1086/152325

    work page doi:10.1086/152325 1973

  55. [55]

    Lee, E. J. 2019, ApJ, 878, 36, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab1b40

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab1b40 2019

  56. [56]

    J., & Chiang, E

    Lee, E. J., & Chiang, E. 2017, ApJ, 842, 40, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa6fb3

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa6fb3 2017

  57. [57]

    The Astrophysical Journal , author =

    Li, G., Naoz, S., Kocsis, B., & Loeb, A. 2014, ApJ, 785, 116, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/785/2/116

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/785/2/116 2014

  58. [58]

    Lin, D. N. C., & Papaloizou, J. 1979, MNRAS, 186, 799, doi: 10.1093/mnras/186.4.799

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/186.4.799 1979

  59. [59]

    Liu, S.-F., Guillochon, J., Lin, D. N. C., & Ramirez-Ruiz, E. 2013, ApJ, 762, 37, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/762/1/37

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/762/1/37 2013

  60. [60]

    Liu, S.-F., Hori, Y., Lin, D. N. C., & Asphaug, E. 2015, ApJ, 812, 164, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/812/2/164

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/812/2/164 2015

  61. [61]

    Stability of Multiplanet Systems Through Hot Jupiter Destruction

    Liveoak, D., Hallatt, T., & Millholland, S. 2026, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2604.19918, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2604.19918

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.48550/arxiv.2604.19918 2026

  62. [62]

    M., & Millholland, S

    Louden, E. M., & Millholland, S. C. 2024, ApJ, 974, 304, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad74ff

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad74ff 2024

  63. [63]

    S., Kjeldsen, H., Albrecht, S., et al

    Lundkvist, M. S., Kjeldsen, H., Albrecht, S., et al. 2016, Nature Communications, 7, 11201, doi: 10.1038/ncomms11201

    work page doi:10.1038/ncomms11201 2016

  64. [64]

    D., & Cumming, A

    Marleau, G. D., & Cumming, A. 2014, MNRAS, 437, 1378, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stt1967

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1967 2014

  65. [65]

    2016, ApJL, 820, L8, doi: 10.3847/2041-8205/820/1/L8 —

    Matsakos, T., & K¨ onigl, A. 2016, ApJL, 820, L8, doi: 10.3847/2041-8205/820/1/L8 —. 2017, AJ, 153, 60, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/153/2/60

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8205/820/1/l8 2016

  66. [66]

    J., & Rasio, F

    Matsumura, S., Peale, S. J., & Rasio, F. A. 2010, ApJ, 725, 1995, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/725/2/1995

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/725/2/1995 2010

  67. [67]

    Greene, T. P. 2012, ApJL, 754, L26, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/754/2/L26

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/754/2/l26 2012

  68. [68]

    2016, A&A, 589, A75, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201528065

    Mazeh, T., Holczer, T., & Faigler, S. 2016, A&A, 589, A75, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201528065

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201528065 2016

  69. [69]

    D., & Dermott, S

    Murray, C. D., & Dermott, S. F. 1999, Solar System Dynamics (Cambridge University Press), doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139174817

    work page doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174817 1999

  70. [70]

    A., Chiang, E

    Murray-Clay, R. A., Chiang, E. I., & Murray, N. 2009, ApJ, 693, 23, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/693/1/23

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/693/1/23 2009

  71. [71]

    J., Davies, M

    Mustill, A. J., Davies, M. B., & Johansen, A. 2015, ApJ, 808, 14, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/808/1/14

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/808/1/14 2015

  72. [72]

    E., & Jackson, A

    Owen, J. E., & Jackson, A. P. 2012, MNRAS, 425, 2931, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21481.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21481.x 2012

  73. [73]

    E., & Lai, D

    Owen, J. E., & Lai, D. 2018, MNRAS, 479, 5012, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1760

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1760 2018

  74. [74]

    E., & Wu, Y

    Owen, J. E., & Wu, Y. 2016, ApJ, 817, 107, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/817/2/107 Paczy´ nski, B., & Sienkiewicz, R. 1972, AcA, 22, 73

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-637x/817/2/107 2016

  75. [75]

    2011, , 192, 3, 10.1088/0067-0049/192/1/3

    Paxton, B., Bildsten, L., Dotter, A., et al. 2011, ApJS, 192, 3, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/192/1/3

    work page doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/1/3 2011

  76. [76]

    2013, , 208, 4, 10.1088/0067-0049/208/1/4

    Paxton, B., Cantiello, M., Arras, P., et al. 2013, ApJS, 208, 4, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/208/1/4

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1088/0067-0049/208/1/4 2013

  77. [77]

    2015, , 220, 15, 10.1088/0067-0049/220/1/15

    Paxton, B., Marchant, P., Schwab, J., et al. 2015, ApJS, 220, 15, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/220/1/15

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1088/0067-0049/220/1/15 2015

  78. [78]

    Modules for Experiments in Stellar Astrophysics (MESA): Convective Boundaries, Element Diffusion, and Massive Star Explosions

    Paxton, B., Schwab, J., Bauer, E. B., et al. 2018, ApJS, 234, 34, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/aaa5a8

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aaa5a8 2018

  79. [79]

    2019, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 243, 10, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ab2241

    Paxton, B., Smolec, R., Schwab, J., et al. 2019, ApJS, 243, 10, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ab2241

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ab2241 2019

  80. [80]

    A., Marcy, G

    Petigura, E. A., Marcy, G. W., Winn, J. N., et al. 2018, AJ, 155, 89, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/aaa54c

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aaa54c 2018

Showing first 80 references.