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arxiv: 1312.6034 · v2 · submitted 2013-12-20 · 💻 cs.CV

Deep Inside Convolutional Networks: Visualising Image Classification Models and Saliency Maps

Karen Simonyan , Andrea Vedaldi , Andrew Zisserman This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-11 18:45 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 💻 cs.CV
keywords convolutional networkssaliency mapsvisualizationweakly supervised segmentationgradient methodsimage classification
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The pith

A convolutional network trained only for image classification can produce saliency maps from class-score gradients that support weakly supervised object segmentation.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This paper presents two gradient-based methods for visualizing what convolutional networks learn during image classification. The first synthesizes an image that maximizes the score for a target class to show what the network associates with it. The second computes a saliency map for any input image by propagating the class score gradient back to the pixels. These saliency maps prove effective for segmenting the object of interest in the image using only a classification-trained network and no location labels.

Core claim

The central claim is that computing the gradient of the class score with respect to the input image pixels yields both class-representative visualizations through optimization and image-specific saliency maps, which in turn enable weakly supervised object segmentation.

What carries the argument

The class score gradient with respect to input image pixels, used to generate saliency maps and class visualizations.

If this is right

  • Saliency maps from classification networks support object segmentation without supervised location data.
  • Maximizing class scores produces images that illustrate learned class concepts.
  • Gradient visualization methods connect directly to those employed in deconvolutional networks.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same gradient technique might help identify biases or failure modes in network decisions by revealing attended regions.
  • These visualizations could be combined with other interpretability tools for deeper model analysis.

Load-bearing premise

The gradient of the class score with respect to input pixels provides a faithful measure of each pixel's importance to the classification decision.

What would settle it

Experiments showing that the resulting saliency maps do not align with object boundaries or fail to produce accurate segmentations in a weakly supervised setting would contradict the central claim.

read the original abstract

This paper addresses the visualisation of image classification models, learnt using deep Convolutional Networks (ConvNets). We consider two visualisation techniques, based on computing the gradient of the class score with respect to the input image. The first one generates an image, which maximises the class score [Erhan et al., 2009], thus visualising the notion of the class, captured by a ConvNet. The second technique computes a class saliency map, specific to a given image and class. We show that such maps can be employed for weakly supervised object segmentation using classification ConvNets. Finally, we establish the connection between the gradient-based ConvNet visualisation methods and deconvolutional networks [Zeiler et al., 2013].

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript introduces two gradient-based visualization techniques for ConvNets trained on image classification. The first synthesizes an input image that maximizes a target class score. The second computes a class-specific saliency map for a given image by back-propagating the class score gradient to the input pixels and taking the absolute value. The authors illustrate the use of these maps for weakly supervised object segmentation and establish a formal connection between the gradient-based visualizations and deconvolutional networks.

Significance. If the saliency maps reliably highlight object pixels, the work supplies practical tools for interpreting ConvNet decisions and enables segmentation from classification-only training data. The explicit link drawn to deconvolutional networks unifies two previously separate visualization approaches and is a clear strength of the manuscript.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract / segmentation experiments] Abstract and the weakly-supervised segmentation section: the claim that saliency maps 'can be employed for weakly supervised object segmentation' rests only on a handful of qualitative visual examples. No automatic thresholding rule, connected-component procedure, or post-processing step is formalized, and no quantitative metrics (IoU, pixel accuracy, or similar) are reported against ground-truth masks on any dataset.
  2. [Eq. (2)] Eq. (2): the saliency map is defined as the absolute value of the class-score gradient with respect to input pixels. The resulting maps are acknowledged to be noisy, yet the manuscript provides neither an analysis of how this noise propagates into the segmentation examples nor any error quantification that would support the central segmentation claim.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Figures 1-3] Figure captions for the synthesized class images and saliency maps should explicitly state the optimization parameters (learning rate, number of iterations, regularization) used to produce each example.
  2. [§3] The notation distinguishing the class score S_c from the network output f_c could be introduced once at the beginning of §3 and used consistently thereafter.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive feedback and positive assessment of the work's significance and its connection to deconvolutional networks. We respond point-by-point to the major comments below.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract / segmentation experiments] Abstract and the weakly-supervised segmentation section: the claim that saliency maps 'can be employed for weakly supervised object segmentation' rests only on a handful of qualitative visual examples. No automatic thresholding rule, connected-component procedure, or post-processing step is formalized, and no quantitative metrics (IoU, pixel accuracy, or similar) are reported against ground-truth masks on any dataset.

    Authors: We agree that the segmentation results are demonstrated through qualitative examples rather than a fully formalized pipeline with quantitative evaluation. The primary focus of the manuscript is the gradient-based visualization techniques themselves; the segmentation application is presented as an illustration of how the saliency maps might be used in a weakly-supervised setting. To address the concern, the revised manuscript will include an explicit description of the simple thresholding and connected-component post-processing applied to the examples, along with quantitative metrics (e.g., pixel accuracy and IoU) evaluated against ground-truth masks on a standard dataset such as PASCAL VOC. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Eq. (2)] Eq. (2): the saliency map is defined as the absolute value of the class-score gradient with respect to input pixels. The resulting maps are acknowledged to be noisy, yet the manuscript provides neither an analysis of how this noise propagates into the segmentation examples nor any error quantification that would support the central segmentation claim.

    Authors: The manuscript does observe that the resulting saliency maps can appear noisy. The absolute-value operation is applied to produce a non-negative map that emphasizes pixels with the largest positive influence on the class score. We acknowledge the absence of a dedicated noise-propagation analysis or error quantification tied to the segmentation examples. In the revision we will add a short discussion of the noise characteristics of the raw gradients versus the absolute-value maps, supported by additional side-by-side visualizations that illustrate their effect on the downstream segmentation examples. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; derivations follow from standard back-propagation

full rationale

The paper defines its core visualization techniques directly from the gradient of the class score with respect to input pixels (via standard back-propagation) and the class-score maximization problem. These are not fitted to target outputs, nor are they defined in terms of the quantities they are later used to produce. The weakly-supervised segmentation application is presented as a qualitative demonstration rather than a formal prediction derived from fitted parameters. No load-bearing self-citations or uniqueness theorems are invoked; the cited prior work (Erhan et al., Zeiler et al.) is external. The claimed connection to deconvolutional networks is shown via explicit mathematical equivalence of the operations, not by renaming or self-reference. The derivation chain is therefore self-contained against external benchmarks and does not reduce to its inputs by construction.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

The abstract introduces no new free parameters, axioms, or invented entities. It relies on the standard assumption that gradients can be computed through a trained ConvNet and that these gradients carry semantic meaning for visualization.

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