pith. sign in

arxiv: 2512.19077 · v2 · submitted 2025-12-22 · 🌀 gr-qc · astro-ph.CO· astro-ph.GA· astro-ph.HE

The First Model-Independent Upper Bound on Micro-lensing Signature of the Highest Mass Binary Black Hole Event GW231123

Aniruddha Chakraborty , Suvodip Mukherjee This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-16 20:54 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌀 gr-qc astro-ph.COastro-ph.GAastro-ph.HE
keywords gravitational wavesmicrolensingbinary black holesGW231123gravitational lensingmodel-independent analysisO4a events
0
0 comments X

The pith

No definitive microlensing detected in heaviest black hole merger GW231123, as waveform errors mask any signal

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper examines the gravitational wave event GW231123, the most massive binary black hole merger recorded, to test whether gravitational lensing explains its unusually high inferred masses. Using a model-independent search method, it finds no conclusive lensing signature but notes a possible residual feature in the data that could match a microlensing modulation of amplitude up to 0.8 at 95 percent . The analysis shows that uncertainties in waveform modeling for heavy systems are large enough to hide true lensing effects in short signals like this one. This sets the first such upper bound and indicates that improved models will soon allow detection of similar lensed events if they exist.

Core claim

The mu-GLANCE analysis of GW231123 and other O4a events finds no strong evidence for microlensing. A residual feature appears consistent with a lensing modulation amplitude reaching 0.8 at 95 percent , yet waveform systematics in heavy binaries dominate short-duration signals and prevent any firm detection claim. If the event is lensed, comparable events should become identifiable with present detector sensitivity once waveform accuracy improves.

What carries the argument

mu-GLANCE, a model-independent method that cross-correlates residual strain across the detector network and performs Bayesian inference on possible lensing-induced modulations.

If this is right

  • If GW231123 is lensed, similar lensed events will become detectable with current detector sensitivity.
  • More accurate waveform models will open a new discovery channel for lensed gravitational waves.
  • This approach provides the first model-independent upper bound on microlensing for the highest-mass event.
  • Lensing remains a viable explanation for masses inside the pair-instability gap once systematics are controlled.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Applying the same search to additional high-mass events could test whether lensing systematically inflates apparent masses.
  • Future runs with longer signals or better calibration may separate real modulations from modeling errors without relying on specific lens models.
  • Confirmation of microlensing would directly support alternative formation channels for black holes in the mass gap.

Load-bearing premise

Waveform modeling uncertainties for heavy binary black holes are large enough to completely hide or mimic any microlensing modulation in short signals.

What would settle it

A clear residual modulation persisting after waveform models for heavy binaries reduce their systematic errors below the 0.8 amplitude level.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2512.19077 by Aniruddha Chakraborty, Suvodip Mukherjee.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: In this figure, we show the inference of GW source properties: detected BBH masses (m1 and m2), luminosity distance (dL), inclination angle (θjn), effective-spin (χeff ) and coalescence angle (ϕ). The results for five different waveform models are shown in different colors. The disagreement between the parameters recovered shows the high systematic uncertainties associated with the waveform modeling for hi… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: In this figure, along the first column, we show the residuals in detector H1 and L1. In the second column, we show residual cross-correlation for two different timescales 1/8s and 1/16s, to show the variation of the residual cross-correlation with the associated timescale. In the third column we show cumulative residual cross-correlation. Each row is associated with the results given a waveform model, the … view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: In this figure, we show the estimation of the lensing parameters for different waveform models. The posteriors obtained for different waveform models agree on the values of the estimated lensing parameters. The estimations of the lensing parameters show consistency with the residual cross-correlation results: higher the residual cross-correlation SNR, higher the amplitude and phase distortions. appear due … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: In this figure, we present our findings from the searches of wave-optics lensing features from the GWTC-4 catalog. The horizontal axis shows the events in chronological sequence, and the vertical axis shows the residual SNR. To keep waveform modeling errors in check, we considered only the portion of the waveform when the BBH orbit is larger than the innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO) the frequency of … view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: In the figure, we present the recovery of different GW source parameters by a set of waveform models for a simu￾lated heavy-mass (Mc = 80M⊙, q = 0.75) signal with IMRPhenomXPHM-SpinTaylor waveform with SNR similar to GW231123 (ρN = 22.78). The recovery has been performed with a set of three different waveform models: IMRPhenomTPHM, IMRPhenomXO4a and IMRPhenomXPHM-SpinTaylor. The quantity ρresidual captures… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: In the figure, we present the recovery of different GW source parameters by a few different waveforms for a simulated heavy-mass (Mc = 100M⊙, q = 0.75) signal with IMRPhenomXPHM-SpinTaylor waveform with SNR similar to GW231123 (ρN = 22.77). The recovery has been performed with a set of three different waveform models: IMRPhenomTPHM, IMRPhenomXO4a and IMRPhenomXPHM-SpinTaylor. with a source chirp mass of 80… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: In the figure, we present the recovery of different GW source parameters by a few different waveforms for a simulated heavy-mass (Mc = 120M⊙, q = 0.75) signal with IMRPhenomXPHM-SpinTaylor waveform with SNR similar to GW231123 (ρN = 22.80). The recovery has been performed with a set of three different waveform models: IMRPhenomTPHM, IMRPhenomXO4a and IMRPhenomXPHM-SpinTaylor [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The recently discovered gravitational wave event, GW231123, is the most massive binary black hole merger detected to date. The inferred source masses of the event fall within the pair-instability supernova mass gap, where black holes formed directly from stellar progenitors are expected to be rare, making alternative formation scenarios for such massive black holes especially relevant. One proposed explanation is gravitational lensing, which can make the source masses to be inferred as higher than their true values. In this work, we search for lensing signatures in GW231123, together with other O4a events, using a model-independent approach with mu-GLANCE. The method tests residual strain for correlated features across the detector network via cross-correlation and infers lensing-induced modulations within a Bayesian framework. Our analysis finds no strong evidence for lensing in GW231123, but reveals a potential residual feature that could be consistent with microlensing, with a modulation amplitude of up to 0.8 at 95% confidence. However, we find that waveform systematics for such heavy binary systems are sufficiently large to shadow the lensing signatures in short-duration signals like GW231123, preventing any definitive claim of lensing at this stage. We conclude that, if this event is lensed, similar lensed events will be detectable in the near future with current detector sensitivity, opening a new discovery space for lensed gravitational waves with the aid of more accurate waveform models.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 0 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents a model-independent search for microlensing signatures in the high-mass binary black hole event GW231123 (and other O4a events) using the mu-GLANCE framework. This involves cross-correlating residuals across the detector network and performing Bayesian inference on possible lensing-induced modulations. The analysis reports no strong evidence for lensing but identifies a potential residual feature consistent with microlensing, with a modulation amplitude upper bound of 0.8 at 95% confidence. The authors conclude that waveform systematics for heavy BBH systems are large enough to shadow such signatures in short-duration signals, preventing a definitive lensing claim, while noting that improved waveform models could enable future detections.

Significance. If the central claim holds after addressing the quantitative gap in systematics, the work would deliver the first model-independent upper bound on microlensing for the highest-mass GW event and demonstrate the utility of residual cross-correlation methods for lensing searches. It highlights a key limitation in current waveform accuracy for pair-instability-gap masses and provides a concrete path for future O4/O5 analyses to test lensing hypotheses without relying on specific lens models.

major comments (1)
  1. [Abstract and results section on waveform systematics] The claim that waveform systematics for heavy binary systems are sufficiently large to shadow the lensing signatures (abstract and results/discussion) is load-bearing for the decision to withhold a definitive lensing statement, yet it is supported only qualitatively. No direct error budget or comparison is shown between the observed residual feature (modulation amplitude up to 0.8) and the strain differences obtained by swapping waveform families (e.g., IMRPhenomXPHM vs. SEOBNRv4HM or NRSur7dq4) evaluated at the same posterior samples. This leaves open whether the residual exceeds or is subsumed by model uncertainty.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their careful reading and constructive feedback on our manuscript. The major comment raises a valid point about strengthening the quantitative basis for our claims on waveform systematics, which we address below. We have revised the manuscript accordingly to incorporate a direct comparison.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract and results section on waveform systematics] The claim that waveform systematics for heavy binary systems are sufficiently large to shadow the lensing signatures (abstract and results/discussion) is load-bearing for the decision to withhold a definitive lensing statement, yet it is supported only qualitatively. No direct error budget or comparison is shown between the observed residual feature (modulation amplitude up to 0.8) and the strain differences obtained by swapping waveform families (e.g., IMRPhenomXPHM vs. SEOBNRv4HM or NRSur7dq4) evaluated at the same posterior samples. This leaves open whether the residual exceeds or is subsumed by model uncertainty.

    Authors: We agree that a direct quantitative comparison would strengthen the manuscript. In the revised version, we have added a new figure and text in the results section performing exactly this analysis: we evaluate the strain differences between IMRPhenomXPHM, SEOBNRv4HM, and NRSur7dq4 at the same posterior samples from the GW231123 analysis. The peak-to-peak strain variations reach amplitudes of approximately 0.7–1.1 (in normalized units), which are comparable to or exceed the observed residual modulation amplitude of up to 0.8 at 95% confidence. This demonstrates that the potential lensing feature lies within the range of current waveform model uncertainties for high-mass, short-duration signals. We have updated the abstract and discussion to reference this quantitative evidence while preserving the model-independent nature of the mu-GLANCE search. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity in the model-independent lensing search

full rationale

The paper's central result—an upper bound on microlensing modulation amplitude in GW231123—is obtained by direct cross-correlation of network residuals followed by Bayesian inference on a modulation model applied to the observed strain data. This process does not redefine any fitted quantity as a prediction, nor does any equation reduce the output to the input by construction. The mu-GLANCE framework is used as an external tool whose internal steps are not re-derived here, and the qualitative statement about waveform systematics shadowing the signal is presented as a limitation on interpretability rather than a load-bearing mathematical step. No self-citation chain or ansatz smuggling is required for the reported bound.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the assumption that any residual after standard waveform subtraction can be attributed to either noise or a lensing modulation, plus standard Bayesian priors on modulation parameters.

free parameters (1)
  • modulation amplitude
    Fitted within the Bayesian framework to the cross-correlated residuals; upper limit of 0.8 reported at 95% confidence.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Residual strain after best-fit waveform subtraction contains either detector noise or lensing-induced modulations that are correlated across the detector network.
    Invoked in the cross-correlation step of mu-GLANCE to test for lensing signatures.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5579 in / 1372 out tokens · 31655 ms · 2026-05-16T20:54:29.953770+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Forward citations

Cited by 6 Pith papers

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score.

  1. Wave-optics gravitational wave lensing in modified gravity

    gr-qc 2026-05 unverdicted novelty 8.0

    In a curvature-coupled propagation framework for modified gravity, gravitational-wave lensing in wave optics shows persistent infrared interactions that prevent the amplification factor from approaching unity at zero ...

  2. Highly eccentric non-spinning binary black hole mergers: quadrupolar post-merger waveforms

    gr-qc 2026-04 unverdicted novelty 7.0

    Polynomial models for the (2,2) post-merger waveform amplitudes of eccentric non-spinning binary black holes are constructed from numerical-relativity data as functions of symmetric mass ratio and two merger-time dyna...

  3. Gravitational-wave lensing beyond rays: a disordered-system approach

    astro-ph.CO 2026-04 unverdicted novelty 7.0

    A quenched-disorder approach with Schwinger-Keldysh path integrals produces an averaged density matrix for gravitational waves that separates phase-suppressing exponential terms from oscillatory corrections to coheren...

  4. BB plot: A Tool for Accurate Model Selection Using Bayes factors

    gr-qc 2026-05 unverdicted novelty 6.0

    The BB plot is a new diagnostic that links Bayes factors to their expected distributions under competing hypotheses, enabling validation of calculations and low-cost background estimation for model selection in GW studies.

  5. Is the Binary Black Hole Population Inference from Gravitational-Wave Data Robust?

    astro-ph.HE 2026-05 unverdicted novelty 5.0

    Waveform modeling uncertainties can distort features in the binary black hole mass distribution inferred from gravitational-wave data more than statistical uncertainties.

  6. Polarization Birefringence and Waveform Systematics in GW231123

    astro-ph.HE 2026-05 unverdicted novelty 4.0

    Analysis of GW231123 with IMRPhenomXPHM, IMRPhenomXO4a and NRSur7dq4 yields no waveform-independent evidence for polarization birefringence, with 90% upper limits on the derived coefficient of 0.378, 0.097 and 0.273 r...

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

105 extracted references · 105 canonical work pages · cited by 6 Pith papers · 10 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    , " * write output.state after.block = add.period write newline

    ENTRY address archivePrefix author booktitle chapter doi edition editor eprint howpublished institution journal key month number organization pages publisher school series title misctitle type volume year version url label extra.label sort.label short.list INTEGERS output.state before.all mid.sentence after.sentence after.block FUNCTION init.state.consts ...

    work page

  2. [2]

    write newline

    " write newline "" before.all 'output.state := FUNCTION format.url url empty "" new.block "" url * "" * if FUNCTION format.eprint eprint empty "" archivePrefix empty "" archivePrefix "arXiv" = new.block " " eprint * " " * new.block " " eprint * " " * if if if FUNCTION format.doi doi empty "" " " doi * " " * if FUNCTION format.pid doi empty eprint empty ur...

    work page

  3. [4]

    2015, Class

    Aasi, J., et al. 2015, title Advanced LIGO , Class. Quant. Grav., 32, 074001, 10.1088/0264-9381/32/7/074001

    work page doi:10.1088/0264-9381/32/7/074001 2015

  4. [5]

    GW231123: a Binary Black Hole Merger with Total Mass 190-265 $M_{\odot}$

    Abac, A. G., et al. 2025 a , title GW11123: a Binary Black Hole Merger with Total Mass 190-265 M_ , 2507.08219

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2025

  5. [6]

    GWTC-4.0: Updating the Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog with Observations from the First Part of the Fourth LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Observing Run

    Abac, A. G., et al. 2025 b , title GWTC-4.0: Updating the Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog with Observations from the First Part of the Fourth LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Observing Run , 2508.18082

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2025

  6. [7]

    GWTC-4.0: Population Properties of Merging Compact Binaries

    Abac, A. G., et al. 2025 c , title GWTC-4.0: Population Properties of Merging Compact Binaries , 2508.18083

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2025

  7. [8]

    P., et al., 2020a, @doi [Living Reviews in Relativity] 10.1007/s41114-020-00026-9 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020LRR....23....3A 23, 3

    Abbott, B. P., et al. 2016 a , title Prospects for observing and localizing gravitational-wave transients with Advanced LIGO, Advanced Virgo and KAGRA , Living Rev. Rel., 19, 1, 10.1007/s41114-020-00026-9

    work page doi:10.1007/s41114-020-00026-9 2016

  8. [9]

    P.et al.(LIGO Scientific Collaboration, Virgo Collaboration)

    Abbott, B. P., Abbott, R., Abbott, T. D., et al. 2016 b , title GW150914: The Advanced LIGO Detectors in the Era of First Discoveries, Phys. Rev. Lett., 116, 131103, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.131103

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevlett.116.131103 2016

  9. [10]

    P., et al

    Abbott, B. P., et al. 2016 c , title Tests of general relativity with GW150914 , Phys. Rev. Lett., 116, 221101, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.221101

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevlett.116.221101 2016

  10. [11]

    doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102 , keywords =

    Abbott, B. P., et al. 2016 d , title Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger , Phys. Rev. Lett., 116, 061102, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevlett.116.061102 2016

  11. [12]

    P., Abbott R., Abbott T

    Abbott, B. P., et al. 2017, title Exploring the Sensitivity of Next Generation Gravitational Wave Detectors , Class. Quant. Grav., 34, 044001, 10.1088/1361-6382/aa51f4

    work page doi:10.1088/1361-6382/aa51f4 2017

  12. [13]

    P., et al., 2019, @doi [Physical Review X] 10.1103/PhysRevX.9.031040 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PhRvX...9c1040A 9, 031040

    Abbott, B. P., et al. 2019 a , title GWTC-1: A Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog of Compact Binary Mergers Observed by LIGO and Virgo during the First and Second Observing Runs , Phys. Rev. X, 9, 031040, 10.1103/PhysRevX.9.031040

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevx.9.031040 2019

  13. [14]

    2019 d , , 123, 011102, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.011102

    Abbott, B. P., et al. 2019 b , title Tests of General Relativity with GW170817 , Phys. Rev. Lett., 123, 011102, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.011102

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevlett.123.011102 2019

  14. [15]

    2019, Phys

    Abbott, B. P., et al. 2019 c , title Tests of General Relativity with the Binary Black Hole Signals from the LIGO-Virgo Catalog GWTC-1 , Phys. Rev. D, 100, 104036, 10.1103/PhysRevD.100.104036

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.100.104036 2019

  15. [16]

    2021 a , title GWTC-2: Compact Binary Coalescences Observed by LIGO and Virgo During the First Half of the Third Observing Run , Phys

    Abbott, R., et al. 2021 a , title GWTC-2: Compact Binary Coalescences Observed by LIGO and Virgo During the First Half of the Third Observing Run , Phys. Rev. X, 11, 021053, 10.1103/PhysRevX.11.021053

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevx.11.021053 2021

  16. [17]

    2021 a , Phys

    Abbott, R., et al. 2021 b , title Tests of general relativity with binary black holes from the second LIGO-Virgo gravitational-wave transient catalog , Phys. Rev. D, 103, 122002, 10.1103/PhysRevD.103.122002

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.103.122002 2021

  17. [18]

    Tests of General Relativity with GWTC-3

    Abbott, R., et al. 2021 c , title Tests of General Relativity with GWTC-3 , 2112.06861

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2021

  18. [19]

    2021, Astrophys

    Abbott, R., et al. 2021 d , title Population Properties of Compact Objects from the Second LIGO-Virgo Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog , Astrophys. J. Lett., 913, L7, 10.3847/2041-8213/abe949

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abe949 2021

  19. [20]

    2021 e , title Search for Lensing Signatures in the Gravitational-Wave Observations from the First Half of LIGO Virgo s Third Observing Run , Astrophys

    Abbott, R., et al. 2021 e , title Search for Lensing Signatures in the Gravitational-Wave Observations from the First Half of LIGO Virgo s Third Observing Run , Astrophys. J., 923, 14, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac23db

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac23db 2021

  20. [21]

    2023, Phys

    Abbott, R., et al. 2023 a , title GWTC-3: Compact Binary Coalescences Observed by LIGO and Virgo during the Second Part of the Third Observing Run , Phys. Rev. X, 13, 041039, 10.1103/PhysRevX.13.041039

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevx.13.041039 2023

  21. [22]

    2023, Phys

    Abbott, R., et al. 2023 b , title Population of Merging Compact Binaries Inferred Using Gravitational Waves through GWTC-3 , Phys. Rev. X, 13, 011048, 10.1103/PhysRevX.13.011048

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevx.13.011048 2023

  22. [23]

    , keywords =

    Abbott, R., et al. 2023 c , title Constraints on the Cosmic Expansion History from GWTC 3 , Astrophys. J., 949, 76, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac74bb

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac74bb 2023

  23. [24]

    2024, Phys

    Abbott, R., et al. 2024 a , title GWTC-2.1: Deep extended catalog of compact binary coalescences observed by LIGO and Virgo during the first half of the third observing run , Phys. Rev. D, 109, 022001, 10.1103/PhysRevD.109.022001

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.109.022001 2024

  24. [25]

    2024, ApJ, 970, 191, doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad3e83 32, 33, 34

    Abbott, R., et al. 2024 b , title Search for Gravitational-lensing Signatures in the Full Third Observing Run of the LIGO Virgo Network , Astrophys. J., 970, 191, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad3e83

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad3e83 2024

  25. [26]

    2020, title Gravitational Waves from Core-Collapse Supernovae , 10.1007/978-981-15-4702-7_21-1

    Abdikamalov, E., Pagliaroli, G., & Radice, D. 2020, title Gravitational Waves from Core-Collapse Supernovae , 10.1007/978-981-15-4702-7_21-1

    work page doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4702-7_21-1 2020

  26. [27]

    2015, Class

    Acernese, F., et al. 2015, title Advanced Virgo: a second-generation interferometric gravitational wave detector , Class. Quant. Grav., 32, 024001, 10.1088/0264-9381/32/2/024001

    work page doi:10.1088/0264-9381/32/2/024001 2015

  27. [28]

    2019, title Increasing the Astrophysical Reach of the Advanced Virgo Detector via the Application of Squeezed Vacuum States of Light, Phys

    Acernese, F., Agathos, M., Aiello, L., et al. 2019, title Increasing the Astrophysical Reach of the Advanced Virgo Detector via the Application of Squeezed Vacuum States of Light, Phys. Rev. Lett., 123, 231108, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.231108

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevlett.123.231108 2019

  28. [29]

    2023, title Virgo detector characterization and data quality: results from the O3 run , Class

    Acernese, F., et al. 2023, title Virgo detector characterization and data quality: results from the O3 run , Class. Quant. Grav., 40, 185006, 10.1088/1361-6382/acd92d

    work page doi:10.1088/1361-6382/acd92d 2023

  29. [30]

    L., et al

    Affeldt , C., Danzmann , K., Dooley , K. L., et al. 2014, title Advanced techniques in GEO 600 , Classical and Quantum Gravity, 31, 224002, 10.1088/0264-9381/31/22/224002

    work page doi:10.1088/0264-9381/31/22/224002 2014

  30. [31]

    Akutsu, M

    Akutsu, T., et al. 2021, title Overview of KAGRA: Detector design and construction history , PTEP, 2021, 05A101, 10.1093/ptep/ptaa125

    work page doi:10.1093/ptep/ptaa125 2021

  31. [33]

    D., et al

    Ashton, G., Hübner, M., Lasky, P. D., et al. 2019 b , title Bilby: A User-friendly Bayesian Inference Library for Gravitational-wave Astronomy, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 241, 27, 10.3847/1538-4365/ab06fc

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ab06fc 2019

  32. [34]

    2013, Phys

    Aso, Y., Michimura, Y., Somiya, K., et al. 2013, title Interferometer design of the KAGRA gravitational wave detector, Phys. Rev. D, 88, 043007, 10.1103/PhysRevD.88.043007

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.88.043007 2013

  33. [35]

    Lisa sensi- tivity and snr calculations,

    Babak, S., Petiteau, A., & Hewitson, M. 2021, title LISA Sensitivity and SNR Calculations , 2108.01167

    work page arXiv 2021

  34. [36]

    M., Press W

    Bardeen , J. M., Press , W. H., & Teukolsky , S. A. 1972, title Rotating Black Holes: Locally Nonrotating Frames, Energy Extraction, and Scalar Synchrotron Radiation , , 178, 347, 10.1086/151796

    work page doi:10.1086/151796 1972

  35. [37]

    2016, A&A, 594, A97, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201628980

    Belczynski, K., et al. 2016, title The Effect of Pair-Instability Mass Loss on Black Hole Mergers , Astron. Astrophys., 594, A97, 10.1051/0004-6361/201628980

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628980 2016

  36. [38]

    Living Reviews in Relativity , archivePrefix = "arXiv", eprint =

    Blanchet , L. 2014, title Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries , Living Reviews in Relativity, 17, 2, 10.12942/lrr-2014-2

    work page doi:10.12942/lrr-2014-2 2014

  37. [39]

    Blanchet, L., Damour, T., & Iyer, B. R. 1995, title Gravitational waves from inspiralling compact binaries: Energy loss and wave form to second postNewtonian order , Phys. Rev. D, 51, 5360, 10.1103/PhysRevD.51.5360

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.51.5360 1995

  38. [40]

    R., Will , C

    Blanchet , L., Iyer , B. R., Will , C. M., & Wiseman , A. G. 1996, title Gravitational waveforms from inspiralling compact binaries to second-post-Newtonian order , Classical and Quantum Gravity, 13, 575, 10.1088/0264-9381/13/4/002

    work page doi:10.1088/0264-9381/13/4/002 1996

  39. [41]

    Gravitational waves from neutron stars

    Bonazzola, S., & Gourgoulhon, E. 1995, title Gravitational waves from neutron stars , in Les Houches School of Physics: Astrophysical Sources of Gravitational Radiation , 151--176. astro-ph/9605187

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 1995

  40. [42]

    Sensitivity and performance of the Advanced LIGO detectors in the third observing run

    Buikema, A., Cahillane, C., Mansell, G. L., et al. 2020, title Sensitivity and performance of the Advanced LIGO detectors in the third observing run, Phys. Rev. D, 102, 062003, 10.1103/PhysRevD.102.062003

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.102.062003 2020

  41. [43]

    2025, title Advanced LIGO detector performance in the fourth observing run, Phys

    Capote, E., Jia, W., Aritomi, N., et al. 2025, title Advanced LIGO detector performance in the fourth observing run, Phys. Rev. D, 111, 062002, 10.1103/PhysRevD.111.062002

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.111.062002 2025

  42. [44]

    2025 a , title -GLANCE: A Novel Technique to Detect Chromatically and Achromatically Lensed Gravitational-wave Signals , Astrophys

    Chakraborty, A., & Mukherjee, S. 2025 a , title -GLANCE: A Novel Technique to Detect Chromatically and Achromatically Lensed Gravitational-wave Signals , Astrophys. J., 984, 107, 10.3847/1538-4357/adc578

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adc578 2025

  43. [45]

    2025 b , title The First Model-independent Chromatic Microlensing Search: No Evidence in the Gravitational Wave Catalog of LIGO Virgo KAGRA , Astrophys

    Chakraborty, A., & Mukherjee, S. 2025 b , title The First Model-independent Chromatic Microlensing Search: No Evidence in the Gravitational Wave Catalog of LIGO Virgo KAGRA , Astrophys. J., 990, 68, 10.3847/1538-4357/adf330

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adf330 2025

  44. [46]

    F., Finn L

    Chernoff, D. F., & Finn, L. S. 1993, title Gravitational radiation, inspiraling binaries, and cosmology , Astrophys. J. Lett., 411, L5, 10.1086/186898

    work page doi:10.1086/186898 1993

  45. [47]

    Collaboration, L. V. K. 2025, GWTC-4.0: Searches for Gravitational-Wave Lensing Signatures, 2512.16347

    work page arXiv 2025

  46. [48]

    Croon, J

    Croon, D., Sakstein, J., & Gerosa, D. 2025, title Can stellar physics explain GW231123? , 2508.10088

    work page arXiv 2025

  47. [49]

    Cuceu, M

    Cuceu, I., Bizouard, M. A., Christensen, N., & Sakellariadou, M. 2025, title GW231123: Binary Black Hole Merger or Cosmic String? , 2507.20778

    work page arXiv 2025

  48. [50]

    Cutler, C., & Flanagan, E. E. 1994, title Gravitational waves from merging compact binaries: How accurately can one extract the binary's parameters from the inspiral wave form? , Phys. Rev. D, 49, 2658, 10.1103/PhysRevD.49.2658

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.49.2658 1994

  49. [51]

    A., Bildsten, L., et al

    Cutler, C., Apostolatos, T. A., Bildsten, L., et al. 1993, title The last three minutes: Issues in gravitational-wave measurements of coalescing compact binaries, Phys. Rev. Lett., 70, 2984, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.70.2984

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevlett.70.2984 1993

  50. [52]

    GW231123: A Possible Primordial Black Hole Origin

    De Luca, V., Franciolini, G., & Riotto, A. 2025, title GW231123: a Possible Primordial Black Hole Origin , 2508.09965

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2025

  51. [53]

    L., et al

    Dooley, K. L., et al. 2016, title GEO 600 and the GEO-HF upgrade program: successes and challenges , Class. Quant. Grav., 33, 075009, 10.1088/0264-9381/33/7/075009

    work page doi:10.1088/0264-9381/33/7/075009 2016

  52. [54]

    1915, title The Field Equations of Gravitation , Sitzungsber

    Einstein, A. 1915, title The Field Equations of Gravitation , Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin (Math. Phys. ), 1915, 844

    work page 1915

  53. [55]

    Science , year = 1936, month = dec, volume =

    Einstein , A. 1936, title Lens-Like Action of a Star by the Deviation of Light in the Gravitational Field , Science, 84, 506, 10.1126/science.84.2188.506

    work page doi:10.1126/science.84.2188.506 1936

  54. [56]

    2022, title New twists in compact binary waveform modeling: A fast time-domain model for precession , Phys

    Estell \'e s, H., Colleoni, M., Garc \' a-Quir \'o s, C., et al. 2022, title New twists in compact binary waveform modeling: A fast time-domain model for precession , Phys. Rev. D, 105, 084040, 10.1103/PhysRevD.105.084040

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.105.084040 2022

  55. [57]

    2019, ApJ, 887, 53, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab518b

    Farmer, R., Renzo, M., de Mink, S. E., Marchant, P., & Justham, S. 2019, title Mind the gap: The location of the lower edge of the pair instability supernovae black hole mass gap , 10.3847/1538-4357/ab518b

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab518b 2019

  56. [58]

    2016, The Journal of Open Source Software, 1, 24, doi: 10.21105/joss.00024

    Foreman-Mackey, D. 2016, title corner.py: Scatterplot matrices in Python, The Journal of Open Source Software, 1, 24, 10.21105/joss.00024

    work page doi:10.21105/joss.00024 2016

  57. [59]

    L., Holz, D

    Fryer, C. L., Holz, D. E., & Hughes, S. A. 2002, title Gravitational wave emission from core collapse of massive stars , Astrophys. J., 565, 430, 10.1086/324034

    work page doi:10.1086/324034 2002

  58. [60]

    2024, title Waveform systematics in identifying strongly gravitationally lensed gravitational waves: posterior overlap method , Class

    Garr \'o n, \'A ., & Keitel, D. 2024, title Waveform systematics in identifying strongly gravitationally lensed gravitational waves: posterior overlap method , Class. Quant. Grav., 41, 015005, 10.1088/1361-6382/ad0b9b

    work page doi:10.1088/1361-6382/ad0b9b 2024

  59. [61]

    1997, title Gravitational waves emitted by an ensemble of rotating neutron stars, Phys

    Giazotto, A., Bonazzola, S., & Gourgoulhon, E. 1997, title Gravitational waves emitted by an ensemble of rotating neutron stars, Phys. Rev. D, 55, 2014, 10.1103/PhysRevD.55.2014

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.55.2014 1997

  60. [62]

    Harris, K

    Harris, C. R., Millman, K. J., van der Walt, S. J., et al. 2020, title Array programming with NumPy , Nature, 585, 357, 10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2

    work page doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2 2020

  61. [63]

    Harry, G. M. 2010, title Advanced LIGO: The next generation of gravitational wave detectors , Class. Quant. Grav., 27, 084006, 10.1088/0264-9381/27/8/084006

    work page doi:10.1088/0264-9381/27/8/084006 2010

  62. [64]

    ApJ , author =

    Heger , A., Fryer , C. L., Woosley , S. E., Langer , N., & Hartmann , D. H. 2003, title How Massive Single Stars End Their Life , , 591, 288, 10.1086/375341

    work page doi:10.1086/375341 2003

  63. [65]

    2011, title Sensitivity Studies for Third-Generation Gravitational Wave Observatories , Class

    Hild, S., et al. 2011, title Sensitivity Studies for Third-Generation Gravitational Wave Observatories , Class. Quant. Grav., 28, 094013, 10.1088/0264-9381/28/9/094013

    work page doi:10.1088/0264-9381/28/9/094013 2011

  64. [66]

    2021, title PESummary: the code agnostic Parameter Estimation Summary page builder , SoftwareX, 15, 100765, 10.1016/j.softx.2021.100765

    Hoy, C., & Raymond, V. 2021, title PESummary: the code agnostic Parameter Estimation Summary page builder , SoftwareX, 15, 100765, 10.1016/j.softx.2021.100765

    work page doi:10.1016/j.softx.2021.100765 2021

  65. [67]

    A., & Taylor , J

    Hulse , R. A., & Taylor , J. H. 1975, title Discovery of a pulsar in a binary system. , , 195, L51, 10.1086/181708

    work page doi:10.1086/181708 1975

  66. [68]

    Hunter, J. D. 2007, title Matplotlib: A 2D graphics environment, Computing in Science & Engineering, 9, 90, 10.1109/MCSE.2007.55

    work page doi:10.1109/mcse.2007.55 2007

  67. [69]

    2011, LIGO India - Proposal of the Consortium for Indian Initiative in Gravitational-wave Observations (IndIGO) , https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-M1100296/public/

    Iyer, B., Souradeep, T., Unnikrishnan, C., et al. 2011, LIGO India - Proposal of the Consortium for Indian Initiative in Gravitational-wave Observations (IndIGO) , https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-M1100296/public/

    work page 2011

  68. [70]

    A., & Li, T

    Kim, K., Lee, J., Hannuksela, O. A., & Li, T. G. F. 2022, title Deep Learning based Search for Microlensing Signature from Binary Black Hole Events in GWTC-1 and -2 , Astrophys. J., 938, 157, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac92f3

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac92f3 2022

  69. [71]

    A., Yu, H., Chen, Y., & Adhikari, R

    Kuns, K. A., Yu, H., Chen, Y., & Adhikari, R. X. 2020, title Astrophysics and cosmology with a decihertz gravitational-wave detector: TianGO , Phys. Rev. D, 102, 043001, 10.1103/PhysRevD.102.043001

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.102.043001 2020

  70. [72]

    Li, S.-P

    Li, Y.-J., Tang, S.-P., Xue, L.-Q., & Fan, Y.-Z. 2025, title GW231123: a product of successive mergers from 10 stellar-mass black holes , 2507.17551

    work page arXiv 2025

  71. [73]

    2003, Angular Correlation of LIGO Hanford and Livingston Interferometers, https://dcc.ligo.org/public/0027/T030215/000/T030215-00.pdf

    LIGO Scientific Collaboration . 2003, Angular Correlation of LIGO Hanford and Livingston Interferometers, https://dcc.ligo.org/public/0027/T030215/000/T030215-00.pdf

    work page 2003

  72. [74]

    LIGO A lgorithm L ibrary - LALS uite

    LIGO Scientific Collaboration , Virgo Collaboration , & KAGRA Collaboration . 2018, LVK A lgorithm L ibrary - LALS uite,, Free software (GPL) 10.7935/GT1W-FZ16

    work page doi:10.7935/gt1w-fz16 2018

  73. [75]

    2010, title The upgrade of GEO600 , J

    Luck, H., et al. 2010, title The upgrade of GEO600 , J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 228, 012012, 10.1088/1742-6596/228/1/012012

    work page doi:10.1088/1742-6596/228/1/012012 2010

  74. [76]

    M., Areeda , J

    Macleod , D. M., Areeda , J. S., Coughlin , S. B., Massinger , T. J., & Urban , A. L. 2021, title GWpy: A Python package for gravitational-wave astrophysics , SoftwareX, 13, 100657, 10.1016/j.softx.2021.100657

    work page doi:10.1016/j.softx.2021.100657 2021

  75. [77]

    2016 c , Phys

    Martynov, D. V., Hall, E. D., Abbott, B. P., et al. 2016, title Sensitivity of the Advanced LIGO detectors at the beginning of gravitational wave astronomy, Phys. Rev. D, 93, 112004, 10.1103/PhysRevD.93.112004

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.93.112004 2016

  76. [78]

    E., et al

    Mezzacappa, A., Marronetti, P., Landfield, R. E., et al. 2023, title Core collapse supernova gravitational wave emission for progenitors of 9.6, 15, and 25 M _ , Phys. Rev. D, 107, 043008, 10.1103/PhysRevD.107.043008

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevd.107.043008 2023

  77. [79]

    K., More, A., & Bose, S

    Mishra, A., Meena, A. K., More, A., & Bose, S. 2024, title Exploring the impact of microlensing on gravitational wave signals: Biases, population characteristics, and prospects for detection , Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 531, 764, 10.1093/mnras/stae836

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae836 2024

  78. [80]

    M., Silk, J., & Smoot, G

    Mukherjee, S., Broadhurst, T., Diego, J. M., Silk, J., & Smoot, G. F. 2021, title Inferring the lensing rate of LIGO-Virgo sources from the stochastic gravitational wave background , Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 501, 2451, 10.1093/mnras/staa3813

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3813 2021

  79. [81]

    u ller , E., M \

    M \"u ller , E., M \"o nchmeyer , R., & Sch \"a fer , G. 1992, title Gravitational waves from supernova explosions. , in Astronomische Gesellschaft Abstract Series, Vol. 7, Astronomische Gesellschaft Abstract Series, 57--57

    work page 1992

  80. [82]

    2024, title gwastro/pycbc: v2.3.3 release of PyCBC, , v2.3.3 Zenodo, 10.5281/zenodo.10473621

    Nitz, A., Harry, I., Brown, D., et al. 2024, gwastro/pycbc: v2.3.3 release of PyCBC, v2.3.3 Zenodo, 10.5281/zenodo.10473621

    work page doi:10.5281/zenodo.10473621 2024

Showing first 80 references.