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Astrophysics of Galaxies · arXiv:2611.17337 v1 · submitted 12 Nov 2026 · 127 references

The full Gaia colour-magnitude diagram with white dwarfs reveals a declining Milky Way star formation history

K. Sysoliatina, Akash Vani

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The paper says

“White dwarfs (WDs) provide a fossil record of the Milky Way star formation history (SFH) through the combined effects of stellar evolution and cooling.”

more of the abstract

They have, however, generally been modelled in isolation from the non-degenerate population, so that no single self-consistent set of Galactic assumptions has been required to reproduce both. We present CALOMERA, a semi-analytic chemo-dynamical population synthesis framework in which the vertical density profiles of mono-age subpopulations are computed self-consistently with the Galactic potential and coupled to modern WD cooling sequences, metallicity-dependent progenitor lifetimes and synthetic photometry. We calibrate 18 parameters describing the initial mass function, SFH, initial-final mass relation and WD population against a Gaia DR3 sample of 7.98 × 106 stars within 1 kpc, including 1.1 × 105 WDs. The calibrated model reproduces the star counts in each colour-magnitude diagram region to within 3% and the total number count to within 0.5%, compared with the 81% excess in the predicted WD count obtained with the previous main-sequence-only calibration. The recovered SFH peaks early, declines exponentially thereafter, and includes two recent bursts, located at τ ≈ 2.4 and 0.5 Gyr. Three cooling libraries (Montréal, BaSTI and LPCODE) yield comparably good fits, with differences confined to ${\rm M_G}\gtrsim15$ mag. The predicted luminosity function is in reasonable agreement with the 100 pc Gaia WD sample. We further predict the Galactic WD distribution and differential number counts for surveys of varying depth. Extending the framework to the substellar regime using ATMO models, we predict the Galactic L, T, and Y dwarf populations and their contribution to the deep JWST fields.

from the abstract

Pith says

Machine review · deepseek-v4-flash · 13 Nov 2026 · what was read was not recorded · not checked by a person

It can be wrong. Challenge this review or reply to it.

The passes disagreed. Reader: holds up. Skeptic: holds up only with conditions. Referee: major revision.

4 major objections · 10 minor

How often objections from reviews like this one are right: not yet measured

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Not checked: figures, code, what the 127 references say.

The paper says, at §6.7

The review did not quote this passage.

Pith says: Objection 1 of 4 · major

Radial migration is acknowledged as a limitation but not quantified. The paper states that the inferred SFH represents the age distribution of stars currently near the Sun rather than the true in-situ SFH at R_sun. Given that the central claim is a declining SFH with specific burst ages, and that recent chemo-dynamical simulations (Minchev et al. 2026; Bernaldez et al. …

more of objection 1

… 2026; Ratcliffe et al. 2026, cited in the paper) show migration can substantially reshape local age distributions, the absence of any quantitative estimate of the bias is a significant gap. The authors should at minimum estimate the magnitude of the effect using a simple model or by comparing with published migration simulations. Without this, the robustness of the declining shape and burst ages is uncertain.

The paper says, at §4.3, Eq. (22)

The review did not quote this passage.

Pith says: Objection 2 of 4 · major

The likelihood is constructed as a sum of three terms per CMD region (colour shape, magnitude shape, total count) that are derived from the same stars and are therefore not statistically independent. The authors acknowledge this (line: 'these three terms are derived from the same stars and are therefore not statistically independent; Eq.

more of objection 2

(22) is thus best understood as an effective goodness-of-fit metric'). However, the posterior uncertainties reported in Table 2 are treated as formal statistical errors. The authors should clarify how the lack of independence affects the interpretation of the quoted uncertainties, and whether the relative shrinkage S_rel is robust to this approximation.

The paper says, at §5.2.2, Fig. 6

The review did not quote this passage.

Pith says: Objection 3 of 4 · major

The recovered SFH is compared to literature determinations, but the comparison includes WD-only reconstructions (Fantin et al. 2019; Cukanovaite et al. 2023) that use different selection volumes and modelling assumptions. The paper claims that the joint fit favours a declining SFH, placing it closer to CMD-based determinations than to WD-only histories.

more of objection 3

However, the WD-only studies cited use much smaller volumes (40 pc, 100 pc) and different selection criteria. The authors should discuss whether the differences in volume and selection could contribute to the apparent discrepancy, and whether the joint fit's advantage is primarily due to the larger volume or the joint modelling.

The paper says, at §5.2.3, Fig. 9

The review did not quote this passage.

Pith says: Objection 4 of 4 · major

The cooling-age distributions show a systematic discrepancy: the model predicts a flatter distribution that declines more gradually towards old cooling ages compared to the observed steep decline in the 25 pc and 40 pc samples. The authors note this tension but do not explore its implications for the recovered SFH.

more of objection 4

Since the cooling-age distribution is a direct probe of the SFH convolved with cooling physics, this discrepancy suggests that either the SFH, the IFMR, or the cooling models are not fully consistent with the data. The authors should discuss whether this tension could indicate a problem with the recovered SFH shape, particularly the early peak.

10 minor objections

The paper says, at §2.1.1

Pith says: minor objection 1 of 10

The distance cut of 1 kpc is applied as a heliocentric distance limit, but the selection volume is described as 'a sphere of radius 1 kpc, intersected with a narrow Galactic annulus and truncated in height'. The exact shape of the selection volume should be clarified: is it a cylinder (R_sun ± 150 pc, |z| < 150 pc) intersected with a sphere of radius 1 kpc? The description in the text is ambiguous.

This objection may describe the copy Pith gave the reviewer, not the paper.

The paper says, at §2.1.4, Fig. 2

Pith says: minor objection 2 of 10

The distance limits shown in Fig. 2 are computed without extinction, but the authors state that extinction is included in the forward modelling. This is fine, but the figure caption should note that the limits are extinction-free for clarity.

show 8 more

The paper says, at §3.2

Pith says: minor objection 3 of 10

The description of the three cooling libraries is thorough, but the paper does not specify the mass resolution of the interpolated WD isochrones (stated as 0.002 M_sun and 50 Myr in §3.2). This is fine, but the sentence in §3.3 says 'the adopted mass resolution of the interpolated WD isochrones' without repeating the numbers; consider adding a cross-reference.

The paper says, at §4.2.2, Eq. (16)

Pith says: minor objection 4 of 10

The shift weight in Eq. (16) uses the reference IMF and SFR evaluated at the new and old arguments. The notation is clear, but the text could benefit from a brief explanation of why the reference (unprimed) IMF and SFR are used in the shift weight rather than the updated ones.

The paper says, at Table 2

Pith says: minor objection 5 of 10

The column 'S_rel' is defined as the relative shrinkage of the posterior width relative to the prior width. For alpha_cool, S_rel is negative (-0.05), indicating the posterior is wider than the prior. The authors note this in §5.2.1 but should also explain why this occurs (e.g., the prior is truncated at zero, and the posterior mode is near zero, leading to a skewed distribution).

This objection may describe the copy Pith gave the reviewer, not the paper.

The paper says, at §5.2.2

Pith says: minor objection 6 of 10

The paper states that the amplitude of the first burst (Sigma_p1) returns the prior and is not constrained. This is correctly noted, but the burst at 0.5 Gyr is adopted from SJ21 without being varied. The authors should clarify whether the 0.5 Gyr burst is a fixed input or a free parameter that was not varied (the text says 'only …

more of objection 6

… the amplitude of the most recent star formation episode is treated as a free parameter' in §4.1, but the 0.5 Gyr burst is described as 'adopted from SJ21' in §5.2.2).

The paper says, at §6.7

Pith says: minor objection 7 of 10

The discussion of radial migration is appropriate, but the paper should also mention that the assumption of no radial migration is consistent with the narrow radial selection (R_sun ± 150 pc), which reduces the impact of radial gradients. This is already implied but could be stated explicitly.

The paper says, at §5.4, Table 6

Pith says: minor objection 8 of 10

The predicted brown dwarf counts are presented as predictions, but the paper notes that the substellar population was not included in the calibration. The 20% overprediction of L dwarfs relative to CNS5 is noted. The authors should add a brief discussion of whether this discrepancy could be reduced by adjusting the low-mass IMF slope within its posterior uncertainty.

The paper says, at §3.3

Pith says: minor objection 9 of 10

The Gaussian metallicity spread of 0.07 dex is introduced to account for AMR scatter and partly approximate radial migration. This is a reasonable approximation, but the paper should note that this spread is fixed and not calibrated, which could affect the inferred SFH.

The paper says, at §2.1.3

Pith says: minor objection 10 of 10

The deblending correction uses a smooth transition function (Eq. 1). The adopted transition intervals (GBP-GRP in (0,0.3) mag and SNR in (20,40)) should be justified or referenced.

What would settle it

Run the model with a simple radial migration prescription (e.g., a Gaussian blur in guiding-centre radius with a dispersion of 1-2 kpc over 10 Gyr, as in Frankel et al. 2020 or similar) and re-fit the SFH. If the recovered SFH changes significantly (e.g., the early peak shifts or the declining slope flattens), then the central claim is sensitive to migration and the current result is not robust. Alternatively, compare the model's predicted age distribution of stars in the solar neighbourhood with that from a cosmological simulation that includes radial migration (e.g., from the Auriga or TNG50 projects) to assess the magnitude of the bias.

from the skeptic's reading

How the review went

3 readings by deepseek-v4-flash · 13 Nov 2026

  1. Reader holds up confidence high
  2. Skeptic agrees: says it holds up only with conditions 12 s · 41,011 tokens read, 822 written Radial migration is omitted; the recovered SFH reflects the present-day local age distribution, not the in-situ SFH at R_sun, and the paper's own discussion (Sect. 6.7) acknowledges this but does not quantify the bias.
  3. Referee major revision: 4 major objections, 10 minor 20 s · 41,593 tokens read, 2,032 written

Not run on this paper: the editor, the simulated authors' defence.

Pith did not check this review's objections against the paper.

The review in full

The strongest objection

The central claim is a declining Milky Way star formation history (SFH) with two recent bursts. The model assumes that the present-day stellar population within 150 pc of the Sun and within 1 kpc distance represents the in-situ SFH at R_sun. However, radial migration can transport stars from inner and outer radii to the solar neighbourhood, mixing populations of different ages and metallicities. The paper acknowledges this limitation in Sect. 6.7 ("Radial migration is not included in the model, so the inferred SFH represents the age distribution of stars currently near the Sun rather than the true in-situ SFH at R_sun") and states that most previous WD-based SFH studies also do not correct for it. This is load-bearing because if migration is significant, the recovered declining shape could be biased: old stars from the inner disc (which formed early and have a different SFH) could be overrepresented, while young stars from the outer disc could be underrepresented. The paper does not quantify the magnitude of this bias, nor does it test the sensitivity of the result to migration. Without such a test, the claim that the SFH is declining and has specific burst ages is conditional on the assumption of negligible radial mixing, which is not supported by recent chemo-dynamical simulations (e.g., Minchev et al. 2026; Bernaldez et al. 2026; Ratcliffe et al. 2026, cited in the paper). The reader's weakest_assessment correctly identifies this as the weakest assumption.

The reader's verdict is ACCEPT with high confidence, but the weakest_assumption is radial migration. I agree that this is the most load-bearing concern. The paper acknowledges it but does not address it. The central claim (declining SFH with bursts) is directly affected. The paper's own discussion (Sect. 6.7) states that migration is not included and that this is a deliberate choice to allow comparison with previous studies. However, the claim is presented as a robust result, and the paper does not quantify the uncertainty from this omission. Given that the paper is otherwise thorough and transparent, the appropriate verdict should be CONDITIONAL: accept the paper subject to the authors demonstrating that radial migration does not significantly bias the recovered SFH. The concrete test I propose is feasible and would settle the concern. I do not think the paper should be rejected, because the concern is acknowledged and the paper provides a valuable framework and data. But the central claim should be conditional on this test. The reader's verdict of ACCEPT is reasonable given the paper's strengths, but I think a CONDITIONAL verdict is more appropriate because the concern is load-bearing and unresolved. The agreement_with_reader is 'agree' because we both identify radial migration as the weakest assumption.

The referee's report

If the results hold, this work represents a significant advance in Galactic population synthesis by jointly constraining the SFH, IMF, IFMR, and WD cooling physics from a single self-consistent model fitted to the full Gaia CMD. The reduction of the WD count excess from 81% to <1% demonstrates the power of joint calibration. The recovered declining SFH with two recent bursts provides a coherent picture of local star formation history that reconciles CMD-based and WD-based reconstructions. The framework's extension to brown dwarfs and predictions for JWST foregrounds are valuable applications.

Pith's reading of the paper (a machine's summary, not the authors')

This paper presents CALOMERA, a population synthesis framework that simultaneously models white dwarfs and non-degenerate stars within a self-consistent model of the Milky Way disc. The authors calibrate 18 parameters against Gaia DR3 data and find that the local star formation history peaked early, then declined exponentially, with two moderate recent bursts at about 2.4 and 0.5 Gyr ago. This declining shape is closer to CMD-based reconstructions than to the near-constant or rising histories obtained from some white-dwarf-only studies. The framework also predicts the spatial distribution of white dwarfs and brown dwarfs across the Galaxy.

What carries the argument. The CALOMERA framework combines a semi-analytic chemo-dynamical model of the Milky Way disc (with self-consistent vertical density profiles derived from the gravitational potential) with PARSEC isochrones for non-degenerate stars and three independent white dwarf cooling libraries (Montréal, BaSTI, LPCODE). The 18 free parameters (covering the IFMR, IMF, SFH, DA fraction, and a cooling delay) are calibrated via MCMC against Gaia DR3 data, using a likelihood that balances five CMD regions (giants, upper MS, MS, lower MS, white dwarfs) by comparing one-dimensional colour and magnitude distributions.

Core claim. The paper argues that the local Milky Way star formation history (SFH) is best described by an early peak followed by a power-law decline, punctuated by two moderate recent bursts at look-back times of approximately 2.4 and 0.5 Gyr. This result is obtained by fitting a single self-consistent model to both the white dwarf and main-sequence populations in the Gaia colour-magnitude diagram, which reduces the previously large discrepancy (81% excess) in predicted white dwarf counts to sub-percent level. The joint fit breaks degeneracies that affect studies fitting only one population.

The premise it rests on. Radial migration is not included in the model, so the inferred star formation history represents the age distribution of stars currently near the Sun rather than the true in-situ star formation history at the Solar circle; if radial migration is significant, the recovered declining shape could be biased.

If the paper is right (Pith's inferences, not the authors')

If the recovered declining SFH is correct, the local Milky Way formed most of its stars in the first few Gyr and has been forming fewer ever since, with only modest recent enhancements.

The joint calibration provides a unified description of the stellar and white dwarf populations, enabling more reliable predictions of white dwarf number counts for future surveys (LSST, Euclid, Roman).

The model predicts the spatial distribution of white dwarfs across the disc, allowing survey planners to estimate completeness and foreground contamination as a function of magnitude, bandpass, and sky position.

The same framework, extended to brown dwarfs, predicts a substantial undiscovered population of cool T and Y dwarfs within 25 pc and a significant foreground of brown dwarfs in deep JWST extragalactic fields.

The declining SFH shape contrasts with the near-constant or rising histories inferred from some white-dwarf-only studies, suggesting that those studies may be missing constraints from the main-sequence population.

The recovery of a declining SFH from the joint fit, while the priors allowed constant or rising solutions, suggests that the main-sequence and giant populations provide a strong anchor that WD-only inversions lack. This implies that future WD-only studies should incorporate constraints from non-degenerate stars to break degeneracies.

The fact that the three cooling libraries produce nearly identical best-fit parameters indicates that the current generation of WD cooling models is sufficiently converged for population-synthesis work, at least for the Gaia depth considered. The residual differences at the faint end (MG > 15) may become a diagnostic for future improvements in cooling physics.

The omission of radial migration means the recovered SFH is the age distribution of stars currently near the Sun, not the in-situ SFH at R_sun. If radial migration is significant (as simulations suggest), the true in-situ SFH could be more peaked at early times or have a different shape. This is an acknowledged limitation that future work should address.

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The paper

Abstract

White dwarfs (WDs) provide a fossil record of the Milky Way star formation history (SFH) through the combined effects of stellar evolution and cooling. They have, however, generally been modelled in isolation from the non-degenerate population, so that no single self-consistent set of Galactic assumptions has been required to reproduce both. We present CALOMERA, a semi-analytic chemo-dynamical population synthesis framework in which the vertical density profiles of mono-age subpopulations are computed self-consistently with the Galactic potential and coupled to modern WD cooling sequences, metallicity-dependent progenitor lifetimes and synthetic photometry. We calibrate 18 parameters describing the initial mass function, SFH, initial-final mass relation and WD population against a Gaia DR3 sample of 7.98 × 106 stars within 1 kpc, including 1.1 × 105 WDs. The calibrated model reproduces the star counts in each colour-magnitude diagram region to within 3% and the total number count to within 0.5%, compared with the 81% excess in the predicted WD count obtained with the previous main-sequence-only calibration. The recovered SFH peaks early, declines exponentially thereafter, and includes two recent bursts, located at τ ≈ 2.4 and 0.5 Gyr. Three cooling libraries (Montréal, BaSTI and LPCODE) yield comparably good fits, with differences confined to ${\rm M_G}\gtrsim15$ mag. The predicted luminosity function is in reasonable agreement with the 100 pc Gaia WD sample. We further predict the Galactic WD distribution and differential number counts for surveys of varying depth. Extending the framework to the substellar regime using ATMO models, we predict the Galactic L, T, and Y dwarf populations and their contribution to the deep JWST fields.

The paper's own sentences, arranged, kept beside the review and separate from it. Each label is drawn from a closed vocabulary; the number beside it is the probability the classifier gave that label. No sentence in this record was written by a model.

abstract compiled · 2026-11-14

The authors' main claim, as the classifier picked it out 1.00

“The recovered SFH peaks early, declines exponentially thereafter, and includes two recent bursts, located at $\tau\approx2.4$ and $0.5$ Gyr.”

How the main claim is stated: asserted 1.00

What the abstract itself states, as probabilities: claims first 0.12 · states limitation 0.49 · human participants 0.01 · controlled comparison 0.61 · randomized assignment 0.01 · states quantitative result 0.98 · compares with prior results 0.97 · mentions code or data availability 0.05

The abstract, sentence by sentence

This table labels the abstract only (arXiv listing abstract v1). The number is the probability the classifier gave the label.

SentenceRoleThe authors' own workStates the main conclusionStrength
White dwarfs (WDs) provide a fossil record of the Milky Way star formation history (SFH) through the combined effects of stellar evolution and cooling. background 1.00 0.08 0.06 asserted 1.00
They have, however, generally been modelled in isolation from the non-degenerate population, so that no single self-consistent set of Galactic assumptions has been required to reproduce both. gap 0.96 0.06 0.02 asserted 0.96
We present CALOMERA, a semi-analytic chemo-dynamical population synthesis framework in which the vertical density profiles of mono-age subpopulations are computed self-consistently with the Galactic potential and coupled to modern WD cooling sequences, metallicity-dependent progenitor lifetimes and synthetic photometry. method 0.63 0.95 0.04 asserted 0.99
We calibrate 18 parameters describing the initial mass function, SFH, initial-final mass relation and WD population against a Gaia DR3 sample of $7.98\times10^{6}$ stars within 1 kpc, including $1.1\times10^{5}$ WDs. method 0.93 0.97 0.04 asserted 1.00
The calibrated model reproduces the star counts in each colour-magnitude diagram region to within 3% and the total number count to within 0.5%, compared with the 81% excess in the predicted WD count obtained with the previous main-sequence-only calibration. result 1.00 0.94 0.11 asserted 1.00
The recovered SFH peaks early, declines exponentially thereafter, and includes two recent bursts, located at $\tau\approx2.4$ and $0.5$ Gyr. result 1.00 0.95 0.78 asserted 1.00
Three cooling libraries (Montr\'{e}al, BaSTI and LPCODE) yield comparably good fits, with differences confined to ${\rm M_G}\gtrsim15$ mag. result 0.92 0.91 0.03 asserted 1.00
The predicted luminosity function is in reasonable agreement with the 100 pc Gaia WD sample. result 1.00 0.89 0.04 asserted 0.78
We further predict the Galactic WD distribution and differential number counts for surveys of varying depth. contribution 0.65 0.94 0.03 asserted 1.00
Extending the framework to the substellar regime using ATMO models, we predict the Galactic L, T, and Y dwarf populations and their contribution to the deep JWST fields. contribution 0.73 0.92 0.03 asserted 1.00

What kind of paper the classifier reports this is: method or tool 0.89 · evidence from analysis of existing data 0.55

What was examined, and what was not

Sources read

  • arXiv listing abstract v1

Not examined

  • full text
  • figures and tables
  • references and citing sentences
  • relations to other papers

Levels run

  • P abstract

Not run

  • S sections
  • T body sentences
  • C citations
  • R cross-paper relations

How the labels were made

Compiled by classifier-1.13.0 via TypeSafe API, question bank abstract-p1-20260923, 2026-11-14: 1 request, 7,918 input tokens.

Every quoted sentence on this record is the authors'. Every label is from Pith's closed vocabulary, with the probability shown beside it. This record as JSON

Figures (13)
Figure 1 of the paper
Figure 1. Hess diagrams of the selected samples. Grey lines show the boundaries of the CMD regions defined in Eq. (6). Left: full sample 𝑆0. Right: cleaned subsam￾ple 𝑆1, with reduced binary and blending contamination. 2.1.3 Deblending correction The Gaia colour 𝐺 − 𝐺RP is affected by blending, since photometric contamination from close neighbours enters the broad 𝐺 and the nar￾rower 𝐺RP passbands disproportionately. To correct for this we apply the deblending procedure of Golovin et al. (2023). That correction was calibrated over a limited range of 𝐺BP − 𝐺RP colour and pho￾tometric SNR,…
Figure 2 of the paper
Figure 2. Distance limits corresponding to the adopted apparent magnitude range 2 < 𝐺 < 20.5 mag, as a function of absolute magnitude 𝑀G 2.1.4 Completeness The adopted apparent magnitude limits translate into distance limits for a given absolute magnitude (
Figure 3 of the paper
Figure 3. MS lifetime, 𝑡MS, as a function of initial mass, 𝑀ini, from the PARSEC evolutionary tracks for the metallicity range considered in this work. The vertical grey dashed line marks the adopted break mass, 𝑀br = 1.18 M⊙, used in the piecewise linear approximation of the log 𝑡MS–log 𝑀ini relation. The mean mass spacing of the PARSEC grid is 0.022 M⊙. affect the predicted CMD morphology introducing systematic uncer￾tainties. We introduce a Gaussian metallicity spread of 0.07 dex (SJ21) around each age–metallicity pair of the AMR. This accounts for the intrinsic scatter of the AMR and to…
Figure 4 of the paper
Figure 4. Reduced corner plot for the WD-LP calibration. The diagonal panels show the one-dimensional posterior distributions of the main fitted parameters, while the off-diagonal panels show their joint posterior distributions. Dashed lines indicate the median and 16th–84th percentile intervals. The calibration favours a slightly steeper intermediate-mass IMF than SJ21; because stars in this range dominate the progenitors of present-day WDs, even modest IMF changes propagate into mea￾surable shifts in the WD luminosity function, mass distribution, and number counts. Despite this change, the…
Figure 5 of the paper
Figure 5. Modelled Hess diagram for the calibrated WD-LP model (upper panel) and its comparison to our Gaia sample 𝑆0 in terms of logarithmic residuals (bottom panel). with a subsequent declining continuum punctuated by two moderate recent bursts. This declining SFH shape places our joint fit closer to the CMD￾based reconstructions of the Solar neighbourhood (dashed curves in the SFH panel of
Figure 6 of the paper
Figure 6. Comparison of the functions of the calibrated CALOMERA model to their observational and theoretical determinations in other works. Results of this work are shown in solid blue lines with the shaded regions marking the posterior credible intervals corresponding to 1-, 2-, 3-𝜎. Left: The inferred initial–final mass relation (IFMR) compared to recent empirical determinations from C18, El-Badry et al. (2018), Cunningham et al. (2024), and Miller et al. (2026). Centre: The calibrated initial mass function (IMF) compared to Kroupa et al. (1993, KTG93), Chabrier (2003), and del…
Figure 7 of the paper
Figure 7. Top: WD mass distributions predicted by the calibrated model, evaluated within a 100 pc sphere, for the three cooling prescriptions, com￾pared with local observational samples. Bottom: corresponding effective￾temperature distributions. The comparisons are shown for the 25 pc CNS sample, the 40 pc sample of O’Brien et al. (2024), and the 100 pc GCWD21 sample. The GCWD21 results are shown separately for hydrogen- and helium￾atmosphere WDs. Volume 100 pc 500 pc 1 kpc 2 kpc WDs 1.9 × 104 2.1 × 106 12.3 × 106 58.6 × 106
Figure 8 of the paper
Figure 8. White dwarf luminosity functions predicted by the calibrated mod￾els within a 100 pc sphere using the three WD cooling sequences. The blue histograms show the corresponding 100 pc model predictions for the three cooling libraries, while the data points represent the different observational samples. The purple points indicate the WDLF of the calibration sample. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 tcool, Gyr 10 3 10 2 10 1 P r o b a bilit y d e n sit y This work, WD-LP This work, WD-BA This work, WD-MT CNS6 (25 pc) O'Brien+24 (40 pc)
Figure 9 of the paper
Figure 9. Comparison of the predicted white dwarf cooling-age distributions with the 25 pc and 40 pc volume-complete samples. The model curves cor￾respond to a 40 pc realisation. directions with inverse-angular-distance weights, and held fixed be￾yond the map’s range. The lower panels of
Figure 10 of the paper
Figure 10. Predicted initial metallicity distribution of white dwarf progenitors within the local 100 pc sample. The progenitor metallicities are inferred from the calibrated age–metallicity relation combined with the metallicity￾dependent main-sequence lifetimes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mini, M 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 ttotal, G y r 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 lo g 1 0 N
Figure 11 of the paper
Figure 11. Distribution of white dwarf progenitor initial mass, 𝑀ini, and total age, for the calibrated WD-LP model. The colour scale shows the logarithm of the number of objects in each mass–age bin. ers about 95% of WDs within 1 kpc, while a comparably complete census within 2 kpc requires 𝐺 ≃ 28 (∼97%). The differential number counts in
Figure 12 of the paper
Figure 12. Realisation based on the WD-LP calibration. Top: predicted WD number-density map in the (𝑅, 𝑧) plane. The dashed vertical line marks 𝑅⊙, and the circular contours show heliocentric distances of 100 pc, 500 pc, 1 kpc, and 2 kpc. Middle and bottom: predicted observable fraction of WDs in the SDSS 𝑢 and 𝑖 bands, respectively, including extinction from the 3D dust map of Lallement et al. (2022) with red dotted line showing its applicable range
Figure 13 of the paper
Figure 13. Predicted differential WD number counts in the 𝑢 (solid line) and 𝑖 (faint dotted line) SDSS bands as a function of apparent magnitude for different Galactic latitude cuts using the WD-LP calibration. The predictions include extinction from the adopted three-dimensional dust map (Lallement et al. 2022) and are computed from the calibrated model by integrating the WD density distribution over the corresponding survey volume

Figures are the authors', reproduced from the paper.

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