EnergyAgentBench is a new benchmark with 70 task variants that evaluates LLM agents on live energy data for datacenter siting, long-horizon optimization, and causal grid diagnosis.
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Qwen2.5 Technical Report
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In this report, we introduce Qwen2.5, a comprehensive series of large language models (LLMs) designed to meet diverse needs. Compared to previous iterations, Qwen 2.5 has been significantly improved during both the pre-training and post-training stages. In terms of pre-training, we have scaled the high-quality pre-training datasets from the previous 7 trillion tokens to 18 trillion tokens. This provides a strong foundation for common sense, expert knowledge, and reasoning capabilities. In terms of post-training, we implement intricate supervised finetuning with over 1 million samples, as well as multistage reinforcement learning. Post-training techniques enhance human preference, and notably improve long text generation, structural data analysis, and instruction following. To handle diverse and varied use cases effectively, we present Qwen2.5 LLM series in rich sizes. Open-weight offerings include base and instruction-tuned models, with quantized versions available. In addition, for hosted solutions, the proprietary models currently include two mixture-of-experts (MoE) variants: Qwen2.5-Turbo and Qwen2.5-Plus, both available from Alibaba Cloud Model Studio. Qwen2.5 has demonstrated top-tier performance on a wide range of benchmarks evaluating language understanding, reasoning, mathematics, coding, human preference alignment, etc. Specifically, the open-weight flagship Qwen2.5-72B-Instruct outperforms a number of open and proprietary models and demonstrates competitive performance to the state-of-the-art open-weight model, Llama-3-405B-Instruct, which is around 5 times larger. Qwen2.5-Turbo and Qwen2.5-Plus offer superior cost-effectiveness while performing competitively against GPT-4o-mini and GPT-4o respectively. Additionally, as the foundation, Qwen2.5 models have been instrumental in training specialized models such as Qwen2.5-Math, Qwen2.5-Coder, QwQ, and multimodal models.
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- abstract In this report, we introduce Qwen2.5, a comprehensive series of large language models (LLMs) designed to meet diverse needs. Compared to previous iterations, Qwen 2.5 has been significantly improved during both the pre-training and post-training stages. In terms of pre-training, we have scaled the high-quality pre-training datasets from the previous 7 trillion tokens to 18 trillion tokens. This provides a strong foundation for common sense, expert knowledge, and reasoning capabilities. In terms of post-training, we implement intricate supervised finetuning with over 1 million samples, as well
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representative citing papers
Acceptance Cards is a new four-diagnostic standard for safe fine-tuning defense claims that requires statistical reliability, fresh semantic generalization, mechanism alignment, and cross-task transfer; under this protocol SafeLoRA fails the full-card pass on Gemma-2-2B-it.
FormalRewardBench is the first benchmark for reward models in formal theorem proving, consisting of 250 Lean 4 preference pairs that show frontier LLMs scoring 59.8% while specialized provers score only 24.4%.
OTora provides the first unified framework for reasoning-level denial-of-service attacks on LLM agents, achieving up to 10x more reasoning tokens and order-of-magnitude latency increases while preserving task accuracy across multiple agent types and models.
Creates the first benchmark dataset integrating papers, slides, videos, and presentations for evaluating AI models on fine-grained multimodal correspondences in science.
ArgBench unifies 33 existing datasets into a standardized benchmark for testing LLMs across 46 argumentation tasks and analyzes the impact of prompting techniques and model factors on performance.
RLCracker is a reinforcement learning attack that erases LLM watermarks at 98.5% success rate with minimal data and generalizes across ten schemes and multiple model sizes.
LLaDA is a scalable diffusion-based language model that matches autoregressive LLMs like LLaMA3 8B on tasks and surpasses GPT-4o on reversal poem completion.
Introduces budgeted heteroskedastic multi-judge estimation and proves instance-optimality of an adaptive inverse-variance weighted estimator via matching upper and lower bounds.
Representational convergence across 16 LLMs on 800 reasoning problems is stronger for failed tasks and pre-decision stages but shows minimal causal influence on predictions, pointing to shared processing constraints over shared reasoning.
WMAttack automates finite-budget attack search for world-model agents via SCAS and RGAR, reporting higher normalized reward drops than baselines on Atari and DMC tasks.
Training-language dominance, not English inherent properties, determines brain-LLM alignment across English, Chinese, and French, with additional independent effects from typological distance concentrated in syntactic brain regions.
Test-time training enables three new threat models that raise jailbreak attack success rates on language models to averages of 95% and 93% ASR@10 under LoRA for few-shot and generation-phase attacks across model families.
Self-Policy Distillation extracts a capability subspace from model gradients on correctness tokens, projects KV activations into it for self-generation, and fine-tunes LLMs to achieve up to 13-16% gains over baselines without external signals.
GraphFlow uses a unified wGraph to dynamically instantiate workflows and manage KV caches for LLM agents, reporting 4.95 pp average gains and 4x memory reduction on five benchmarks.
IdioLink introduces a benchmark dataset and evaluation showing that strong embedding models struggle to retrieve equivalent meanings across idiomatic and literal forms, relying on shallow cues instead.
By adding future visual state prediction and a dedicated inverse kinematics diffusion network that uses only visual boundary conditions, a 0.5B driving VLA recovers visual grounding and matches 7-8B models on NAVSIM-v2 and nuScenes.
Distribution-Aware Reward optimizes LLM regression by treating rollouts as empirical predictive distributions and rewarding marginal improvements in CRPS quality rather than point accuracy alone.
Compilation optimizations can be exploited to create stealthy backdoors in LLMs that remain dormant without optimization but achieve ~90% attack success while preserving clean accuracy near 100%.
In 1-3B instruction-tuned LMs on GSM8K, arithmetic CoT readout is dominated by positional copying of the trailing number before the answer delimiter, accounting for 54-92 percentage points of accuracy.
CopT reverses CoT by eliciting a draft answer first then using continuous-embedding contrastive verification and on-policy thinking to reflect and correct, yielding up to 23% higher accuracy and 57% fewer tokens without training.
CPD applies CUSUM change-point detection to standardized next-token entropy streams to identify and localize optimization-based adversarial suffixes, achieving higher F1 and better localization than windowed-perplexity baselines across six open-weight chat models.
LLMForge is a NAS framework with Infinite-Head Attention, a Forge-Former surrogate, and Forge-DSE engine that discovers hardware-specific architectures for edge language models, yielding variants with improved accuracy, energy, or latency on different substrates.
LEAP replaces intractable categorical mask parameterization with a differentiable per-weight Bernoulli relaxation, delivering +2.59 average zero-shot accuracy gain over the best layer-wise baseline across 0.5B-8B LLMs at 50-60% sparsity.
citing papers explorer
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EnergyAgentBench: Benchmarking LLM Agents on Live Energy Infrastructure Data
EnergyAgentBench is a new benchmark with 70 task variants that evaluates LLM agents on live energy data for datacenter siting, long-horizon optimization, and causal grid diagnosis.
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Acceptance Cards:A Four-Diagnostic Standard for Safe Fine-Tuning Defense Claims
Acceptance Cards is a new four-diagnostic standard for safe fine-tuning defense claims that requires statistical reliability, fresh semantic generalization, mechanism alignment, and cross-task transfer; under this protocol SafeLoRA fails the full-card pass on Gemma-2-2B-it.
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FormalRewardBench: A Benchmark for Formal Theorem Proving Reward Models
FormalRewardBench is the first benchmark for reward models in formal theorem proving, consisting of 250 Lean 4 preference pairs that show frontier LLMs scoring 59.8% while specialized provers score only 24.4%.
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OTora: A Unified Red Teaming Framework for Reasoning-Level Denial-of-Service in LLM Agents
OTora provides the first unified framework for reasoning-level denial-of-service attacks on LLM agents, achieving up to 10x more reasoning tokens and order-of-magnitude latency increases while preserving task accuracy across multiple agent types and models.
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Unifying Scientific Communication: Fine-Grained Correspondence Across Scientific Media
Creates the first benchmark dataset integrating papers, slides, videos, and presentations for evaluating AI models on fine-grained multimodal correspondences in science.
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ArgBench: Benchmarking LLMs on Computational Argumentation Tasks
ArgBench unifies 33 existing datasets into a standardized benchmark for testing LLMs across 46 argumentation tasks and analyzes the impact of prompting techniques and model factors on performance.
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RLCracker: Evaluating the Worst-Case Vulnerability of LLM Watermarks with Adaptive RL Attacks
RLCracker is a reinforcement learning attack that erases LLM watermarks at 98.5% success rate with minimal data and generalizes across ten schemes and multiple model sizes.
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Large Language Diffusion Models
LLaDA is a scalable diffusion-based language model that matches autoregressive LLMs like LLaMA3 8B on tasks and surpasses GPT-4o on reversal poem completion.
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Instance-Optimal Estimation with Multiple LLM Judges on a Budget
Introduces budgeted heteroskedastic multi-judge estimation and proves instance-optimality of an adaptive inverse-variance weighted estimator via matching upper and lower bounds.
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Convergence Without Understanding: When Language Models Agree on Representations but Disagree on Reasoning
Representational convergence across 16 LLMs on 800 reasoning problems is stronger for failed tasks and pre-decision stages but shows minimal causal influence on predictions, pointing to shared processing constraints over shared reasoning.
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WMAttack: Automated Attack Search for Adversarial Evaluation of World-Model Agents
WMAttack automates finite-budget attack search for world-model agents via SCAS and RGAR, reporting higher normalized reward drops than baselines on Atari and DMC tasks.
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Brain-LLM Alignment Tracks Training Data, Not Typology
Training-language dominance, not English inherent properties, determines brain-LLM alignment across English, Chinese, and French, with additional independent effects from typological distance concentrated in syntactic brain regions.
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Test-Time Training Undermines Safety Guardrails
Test-time training enables three new threat models that raise jailbreak attack success rates on language models to averages of 95% and 93% ASR@10 under LoRA for few-shot and generation-phase attacks across model families.
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Self-Policy Distillation via Capability-Selective Subspace Projection
Self-Policy Distillation extracts a capability subspace from model gradients on correctness tokens, projects KV activations into it for self-generation, and fine-tunes LLMs to achieve up to 13-16% gains over baselines without external signals.
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GraphFlow: A Graph-Based Workflow Management for Efficient LLM-Agent Serving
GraphFlow uses a unified wGraph to dynamically instantiate workflows and manage KV caches for LLM agents, reporting 4.95 pp average gains and 4x memory reduction on five benchmarks.
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IdioLink: Retrieving Meaning Beyond Words Across Idiomatic and Literal Expressions
IdioLink introduces a benchmark dataset and evaluation showing that strong embedding models struggle to retrieve equivalent meanings across idiomatic and literal forms, relying on shallow cues instead.
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Grounding Driving VLA via Inverse Kinematics
By adding future visual state prediction and a dedicated inverse kinematics diffusion network that uses only visual boundary conditions, a 0.5B driving VLA recovers visual grounding and matches 7-8B models on NAVSIM-v2 and nuScenes.
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Distribution-Aware Reward: Reinforcement Learning over Predictive Distributions for LLM Regression
Distribution-Aware Reward optimizes LLM regression by treating rollouts as empirical predictive distributions and rewarding marginal improvements in CRPS quality rather than point accuracy alone.
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Trusted Weights, Treacherous Optimizations? Optimization-Triggered Backdoor Attacks on LLMs
Compilation optimizations can be exploited to create stealthy backdoors in LLMs that remain dormant without optimization but achieve ~90% attack success while preserving clean accuracy near 100%.
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The Readout Shortcut: Positional Number Copying Dominates Arithmetic CoT Readout in Small Language Models
In 1-3B instruction-tuned LMs on GSM8K, arithmetic CoT readout is dominated by positional copying of the trailing number before the answer delimiter, accounting for 54-92 percentage points of accuracy.
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CopT: Contrastive On-Policy Thinking with Continuous Spaces for General and Agentic Reasoning
CopT reverses CoT by eliciting a draft answer first then using continuous-embedding contrastive verification and on-policy thinking to reflect and correct, yielding up to 23% higher accuracy and 57% fewer tokens without training.
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Detecting Fluent Optimization-Based Adversarial Prompts via Sequential Entropy Changes
CPD applies CUSUM change-point detection to standardized next-token entropy streams to identify and localize optimization-based adversarial suffixes, achieving higher F1 and better localization than windowed-perplexity baselines across six open-weight chat models.
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LLMForge: Multi-Backend Hardware-Aware Neural Architecture Search with Infinite-Head Attention for Edge Language Models
LLMForge is a NAS framework with Infinite-Head Attention, a Forge-Former surrogate, and Forge-DSE engine that discovers hardware-specific architectures for edge language models, yielding variants with improved accuracy, energy, or latency on different substrates.
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LEAP: Learnable End-to-End Adaptive Pruning of Large Language Models
LEAP replaces intractable categorical mask parameterization with a differentiable per-weight Bernoulli relaxation, delivering +2.59 average zero-shot accuracy gain over the best layer-wise baseline across 0.5B-8B LLMs at 50-60% sparsity.
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The Unlearnability Phenomenon in RLVR for Language Models
RLVR training for language models exhibits an unlearnability phenomenon where certain hard examples stay unlearnable due to low gradient similarity and ungeneralizable reasoning patterns.
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LinAlg-Bench: A Forensic Benchmark Revealing Structural Failure Modes in LLM Mathematical Reasoning
LinAlg-Bench shows LLMs switch from execution errors to computational abandonment and structured fabrication at 4x4 matrix scale, indicating a working memory limit rather than knowledge gaps.
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Artificial Aphasias in Lesioned Language Models
Lesioning parameters in large language models produces aphasia-like symptoms whose distributions vary by attention versus feed-forward components and by layer depth, but differ qualitatively from human clinical profiles.
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PSD: Pushing the Pareto Frontier of Diffusion LLMs via Parallel Speculative Decoding
PSD is a training-free framework that jointly optimizes spatial unmasking and temporal speculative decoding in diffusion LLMs to reach up to 5.5x tokens per forward pass while preserving accuracy comparable to greedy decoding.
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MHGraphBench: Knowledge Graph-Grounded Benchmarking of Mental Health Knowledge in Large Language Models
MHGraphBench is a new PrimeKG-derived benchmark that exposes a recognition-to-judgment gap in 15 LLMs on mental health tasks while stressing that results measure KG agreement under constrained interfaces, not clinical capability.
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RxEval: A Prescription-Level Benchmark for Evaluating LLM Medication Recommendation
RxEval benchmark shows frontier LLMs reach at most 46.10% exact match on prescription-level medication, dose, and route selection from real patient trajectories.
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Do Language Models Align with Brains? Prediction Scores Are Not Enough
Language model representations fail all L-PACT alignment gates once controls explain the apparent predictive and relational effects.
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What Does LLM Refinement Actually Improve? A Systematic Study on Document-Level Literary Translation
Document-level machine translation followed by segment-level LLM refinement provides the strongest and most stable improvements in literary translation quality, mainly enhancing fluency and style rather than adequacy.
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Retrieval is Cheap, Show Me the Code: Executable Multi-Hop Reasoning for Retrieval-Augmented Generation
PyRAG turns multi-hop reasoning into executable Python code over retrieval tools for explicit, verifiable step-by-step RAG.
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From Instance Selection to Fixed-Pool Data Recipe Search for Supervised Fine-Tuning
AutoSelection discovers data recipes from a 90K instruction pool that outperform full-data training and other selectors on reasoning tasks for SFT across multiple models.
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When Simulation Lies: A Sim-to-Real Benchmark and Domain-Randomized RL Recipe for Tool-Use Agents
Tool-use agents suffer large accuracy drops from reward and transition perturbations but domain-randomized RL on static perturbations closes about 27% of the unseen transition gap while retaining most clean performance.
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StepCodeReasoner: Aligning Code Reasoning with Stepwise Execution Traces via Reinforcement Learning
StepCodeReasoner aligns code reasoning with verifiable stepwise execution traces via print anchors and bi-level GRPO reinforcement learning, reaching SOTA results on CRUXEval (91.1%) and LiveCodeBench (86.5%) for a 7B model.
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CuSearch: Curriculum Rollout Sampling via Search Depth for Agentic RAG
CuSearch reallocates rollout budget in RLVR toward deeper-search trajectories as a proxy for retrieval supervision density, yielding up to 11.8 exact-match gains over uniform GRPO sampling on ZeroSearch.
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Deep Minds and Shallow Probes
Symmetry under affine reparameterizations of hidden coordinates selects a unique hierarchy of shallow coordinate-stable probes and a probe-visible quotient for cross-model transfer.
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gym-invmgmt: An Open Benchmarking Framework for Inventory Management Methods
gym-invmgmt is a new benchmarking framework that evaluates inventory policies across optimization and learning methods, finding stochastic programming strongest among non-oracle approaches and PPO-Transformer best among learned ones in tested scenarios.
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Do Vision-Language-Models show human-like logical problem-solving capability in point and click puzzle games?
VLATIM benchmark reveals large VLMs excel at high-level planning in physics puzzles but struggle with precise visual grounding and mouse control, so they lack human-like problem-solving capabilities.
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Compander-Aligned Query Geometry for Quantized Zeroth-Order Optimization
CAQ-ZO aligns ZO query stencils to compander grids, eliminating query-time residual error and improving NF4 fine-tuning performance on Qwen and Llama models compared to standard quantized baselines.
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Prompt-Activation Duality: Improving Activation Steering via Attention-Level Interventions
GCAD reduces coherence drift from -18.6 to -1.9 and raises turn-10 trait expression from 78.0 to 93.1 in persona-steering tasks by using gated attention-delta interventions from system prompts.
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Evolving-RL: End-to-End Optimization of Experience-Driven Self-Evolving Capability within Agents
Evolving-RL jointly optimizes experience extraction and utilization in LLM agents via RL with separate evaluation signals, delivering up to 98.7% relative gains on out-of-distribution tasks in ALFWorld and Mind2Web.
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Unsupervised Process Reward Models
Unsupervised PRMs derived from LLM probabilities achieve up to 15% better error detection than LLM judges and match supervised PRMs in verification and RL tasks.
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GraphInstruct: A Progressive Benchmark for Diagnosing Capability Gaps in LLM Graph Generation
GraphInstruct introduces a six-level progressive benchmark with 800 instructions and 1,582 references to diagnose LLM graph generation gaps, plus a verification-guided iterative prompting framework that improves performance.
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Cross-Family Universality of Behavioral Axes via Anchor-Projected Representations
Behavioral directions from one LLM family transfer to others via projection into a shared anchor coordinate space, yielding 0.83 ten-way detection accuracy and steering effects up to 0.46% on held-out models.
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LEAD: Length-Efficient Adaptive and Dynamic Reasoning for Large Language Models
LEAD uses online adaptive mechanisms including Potential-Scaled Instability and symmetric efficiency rewards based on correct rollouts to achieve higher accuracy-efficiency scores with substantially shorter reasoning outputs than base models on math benchmarks.
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The Wittgensteinian Representation Hypothesis: Is Language the Attractor of Multimodal Convergence?
Language representations serve as the asymptotic attractor for convergence in independently trained multimodal neural networks due to feature density asymmetry.
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LEAF-SQL: Level-wise Exploration with Adaptive Fine-graining for Text-to-SQL Skeleton Prediction
LEAF-SQL uses level-wise exploration with adaptive fine-graining and dual agents to generate diverse SQL skeletons, reaching 71.6% execution accuracy on the BIRD benchmark and outperforming prior search- and skeleton-based methods.
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Repeated-Token Counting Reveals a Dissociation Between Representations and Outputs
LLMs encode repeated token counts correctly in residual streams but a format-triggered MLP at 88-93% depth overwrites it with an incorrect fixed value.