Classical repetition-code framing plus SAT search yields no-go theorems (no d>3 T-to-T on <8 qubits) and the smallest known unitary factories for d=4,5 T-states (10–11 qubits) and d=3,4 CCZ-states (9–10 qubits).
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Assessing requirements to scale to practical quantum advantage
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abstract
While quantum computers promise to solve some scientifically and commercially valuable problems thought intractable for classical machines, delivering on this promise will require a large-scale quantum machine. Understanding the impact of architecture design choices for a scaled quantum stack for specific applications, prior to full realization of the quantum system, is an important open challenge. To this end, we develop a framework for quantum resource estimation, abstracting the layers of the stack, to estimate resources required across these layers for large-scale quantum applications. Using a tool that implements this framework, we assess three scaled quantum applications and find that hundreds of thousands to millions of physical qubits are needed to achieve practical quantum advantage. We identify three qubit parameters, namely size, speed, and controllability, that are critical at scale to rendering these applications practical. A goal of our work is to accelerate progress towards practical quantum advantage by enabling the broader community to explore design choices across the stack, from algorithms to qubits.
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representative citing papers
A single metasurface creates a tweezer array that traps 11,000 atoms, reported as the first platform to reach the 10,000-qubit resource scale.
Dual-species Na-Cs Rydberg array enables simultaneous non-destructive readout of multiple Pauli-Z stabilizers on four-qubit plaquettes using a single global pulse sequence after compensating geometric phase errors.
A generative model learns patterns from adaptive QAOA circuits to generate high-quality shallow quantum circuits for Max-E3-SAT that scale better than variational baselines.
KOVAL-Q uses SAT solving to optimize and verify surface-code logical operations with general encodings, finding d-cycle CNOTs and 2d-cycle rotations that reduce FTQC application runtime by about 10 percent.
A graph neural network path planner and phase-aware Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm enable defect-free assembly of 10,000-atom arrays in under 6 ms, faster than typical atom loss times.
Neural decoder for quantum LDPC codes achieves ~10^{-10} logical error at 0.1% physical error with 17x improvement and high throughput, enabling practical fault tolerance at modest code sizes.
Pinnacle Architecture using QLDPC codes reduces physical qubits needed to factor RSA-2048 to under 100,000 at 10^{-3} error rate.
A 256-atom neutral ytterbium processor demonstrates fault-tolerant entanglement of 24 logical qubits and runs Bernstein-Vazirani on 28 logical qubits with better-than-physical error rates using erasure conversion.
Logical error rates in [[7,1,3]] and [[12,2,4]] codes are suppressed 9.8-800 times below physical rates on trapped-ion hardware, with repeated correction cycles approaching the error rate of two physical CNOTs.
Lattice-surgery scheduling is mapped to 3D path embedding and solved with look-ahead Dijkstra projection, yielding 3.8x lower execution time on quantum phase estimation benchmarks versus greedy scheduling.
Integer hybrid path-sums plus a sound Hoare logic enable semi-automated functional verification and expected-cost analysis of hybrid quantum programs with unbounded while loops.
A symmetry-co-designed high-rate QEC architecture with parallel STAR injection on bivariate bicycle codes achieves ~5.5x space savings for TFIM and Fermi-Hubbard simulations versus surface-code STAR.
A modular end-to-end simulation framework jointly models surface-code operations, QPU connectivity, and network constraints to produce execution latency and logical error rate estimates, revealing network-dependent operating regimes for distributed quantum computing.
A co-design method for frequency allocation and noise-aware transpilation in tunable-coupler quantum systems yields 8.9% lower log-infidelity cost and 6.8% shorter circuits than SABRE on SNAIL architectures.
Exact T-count minimization via precomputed optimal libraries up to 7 variables and Clifford canonicalization yields up to 14.3% T reduction on EPFL benchmarks and 40% on cryptographic modules.
A microarchitecture-aware compiler for lattice surgery that exploits C-Phase commutativity to enable concurrent multi-target operations and dynamic event-driven scheduling, cutting execution time by up to 59.7 times versus standard baselines.
Stochastic magic-state production in fault-tolerant quantum computing inflates execution time but reduces peak resource demand, allowing stochastic-aware factory allocation to cut space-time volume by up to 27% and factories by up to 30% versus deterministic optima.
No-go theorems prove hierarchy level and state-independent sequences cannot maximize operational magic in early FTQC, requiring state-aware differentiable optimization and nonlinear phases for scalable magic generation.
Triage is an adaptive parallel window decoding scheduler that reduces average logical error rates by 52.6% compared to standard temporal parallelism while keeping stalls low under scarce classical resources.
FTPrimitiveBench is a new benchmark suite for testing surface-code logical primitives under Pauli-biased, measurement-biased, and spatially non-uniform noise models, revealing that noise structure interacts distinctly with each primitive and decoder.
The paper maps distribution network reconfiguration for loss minimization to a HUBO problem without auxiliary variables and estimates quantum resources for a real Dutch MV network.
Neutral-atom system delivers state-of-the-art CZ gate fidelity of 99.854% (99.941% postselected) and demonstrates coherent rearrangement for nonlocal quantum circuits.
A teleportation-based parallelization architecture for neutral-atom quantum error correction delivers up to 3x speedup over extractor methods at fixed space cost and enables simulated quantum advantage at 11,495 atoms and 15-hour runtime.
citing papers explorer
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Exploring the landscape of compact magic-state distillation factories
Classical repetition-code framing plus SAT search yields no-go theorems (no d>3 T-to-T on <8 qubits) and the smallest known unitary factories for d=4,5 T-states (10–11 qubits) and d=3,4 CCZ-states (9–10 qubits).
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Trapping 11,000 Atoms in a Tweezer Array Generated by a Single Metasurface
A single metasurface creates a tweezer array that traps 11,000 atoms, reported as the first platform to reach the 10,000-qubit resource scale.
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Multi-Qubit Stabilizer Readout on a Dual-Species Rydberg Array
Dual-species Na-Cs Rydberg array enables simultaneous non-destructive readout of multiple Pauli-Z stabilizers on four-qubit plaquettes using a single global pulse sequence after compensating geometric phase errors.
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Q3SAT-GPT: A Generative Model for Discovering Quantum Circuits for the 3-SAT Problem
A generative model learns patterns from adaptive QAOA circuits to generate high-quality shallow quantum circuits for Max-E3-SAT that scale better than variational baselines.
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Design automation and space-time reduction for surface-code logical operations using a SAT-based EDA kernel compatible with general encodings
KOVAL-Q uses SAT solving to optimize and verify surface-code logical operations with general encodings, finding d-cycle CNOTs and 2d-cycle rotations that reduce FTQC application runtime by about 10 percent.
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An Algorithm for Fast Assembling Large-Scale Defect-Free Atom Arrays
A graph neural network path planner and phase-aware Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm enable defect-free assembly of 10,000-atom arrays in under 6 ms, faster than typical atom loss times.
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Scalable Neural Decoders for Practical Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computation
Neural decoder for quantum LDPC codes achieves ~10^{-10} logical error at 0.1% physical error with 17x improvement and high throughput, enabling practical fault tolerance at modest code sizes.
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The Pinnacle Architecture: Reducing the cost of breaking RSA-2048 to 100 000 physical qubits using quantum LDPC codes
Pinnacle Architecture using QLDPC codes reduces physical qubits needed to factor RSA-2048 to under 100,000 at 10^{-3} error rate.
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Fault-tolerant quantum computation with a neutral atom processor
A 256-atom neutral ytterbium processor demonstrates fault-tolerant entanglement of 24 logical qubits and runs Bernstein-Vazirani on 28 logical qubits with better-than-physical error rates using erasure conversion.
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Demonstration of logical qubits and repeated error correction with better-than-physical error rates
Logical error rates in [[7,1,3]] and [[12,2,4]] codes are suppressed 9.8-800 times below physical rates on trapped-ion hardware, with repeated correction cycles approaching the error rate of two physical CNOTs.
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Efficient and high-performance routing of lattice-surgery paths on three-dimensional lattice
Lattice-surgery scheduling is mapped to 3D path embedding and solved with look-ahead Dijkstra projection, yielding 3.8x lower execution time on quantum phase estimation benchmarks versus greedy scheduling.
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An Effective Quantum Hoare Logic for Hybrid Quantum Programs with Unbounded Loops
Integer hybrid path-sums plus a sound Hoare logic enable semi-automated functional verification and expected-cost analysis of hybrid quantum programs with unbounded while loops.
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Fast and Parallel High-Rate STAR Architecture for Megaquop Quantum Simulation
A symmetry-co-designed high-rate QEC architecture with parallel STAR injection on bivariate bicycle codes achieves ~5.5x space savings for TFIM and Fermi-Hubbard simulations versus surface-code STAR.
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Impact of Network Constraints on Fault-Tolerant Distributed Quantum Computing
A modular end-to-end simulation framework jointly models surface-code operations, QPU connectivity, and network constraints to produce execution latency and logical error rate estimates, revealing network-dependent operating regimes for distributed quantum computing.
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Fidelity-Aware Frequency Allocation and Transpilation Co-Design for Tunable Coupler Quantum Systems
A co-design method for frequency allocation and noise-aware transpilation in tunable-coupler quantum systems yields 8.9% lower log-infidelity cost and 6.8% shorter circuits than SABRE on SNAIL architectures.
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Quantum Circuit Synthesis Using an Exact T Library
Exact T-count minimization via precomputed optimal libraries up to 7 variables and Clifford canonicalization yields up to 14.3% T reduction on EPFL benchmarks and 40% on cryptographic modules.
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C-Phase-Aware Compilation for Efficient Fault-Tolerant Quantum Execution
A microarchitecture-aware compiler for lattice surgery that exploits C-Phase commutativity to enable concurrent multi-target operations and dynamic event-driven scheduling, cutting execution time by up to 59.7 times versus standard baselines.
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Price and Payoff: Non-Determinism in Fault Tolerant Quantum Computation
Stochastic magic-state production in fault-tolerant quantum computing inflates execution time but reduces peak resource demand, allowing stochastic-aware factory allocation to cut space-time volume by up to 27% and factories by up to 30% versus deterministic optima.
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Quantum Magic in early FTQC: From Diagonal Clifford Hierarchy No-Go Theorems to Architecture Design Blueprints
No-go theorems prove hierarchy level and state-independent sequences cannot maximize operational magic in early FTQC, requiring state-aware differentiable optimization and nonlinear phases for scalable magic generation.
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Triage: An Adaptive Parallel Window Decoding Scheduler for Real-time Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computation
Triage is an adaptive parallel window decoding scheduler that reduces average logical error rates by 52.6% compared to standard temporal parallelism while keeping stalls low under scarce classical resources.
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FTPrimitiveBench: A Benchmark Suite For Logical Computation Under Hardware-Motivated and Biased Noise Models
FTPrimitiveBench is a new benchmark suite for testing surface-code logical primitives under Pauli-biased, measurement-biased, and spatially non-uniform noise models, revealing that noise structure interacts distinctly with each primitive and decoder.
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Quantum Resource Estimation for Minimising Energy Grid Losses
The paper maps distribution network reconfiguration for loss minimization to a HUBO problem without auxiliary variables and estimates quantum resources for a real Dutch MV network.
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High-fidelity entangling gates and nonlocal circuits with neutral atoms
Neutral-atom system delivers state-of-the-art CZ gate fidelity of 99.854% (99.941% postselected) and demonstrates coherent rearrangement for nonlocal quantum circuits.
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Architecting Early Fault Tolerant Neutral Atoms Systems with Quantum Advantage
A teleportation-based parallelization architecture for neutral-atom quantum error correction delivers up to 3x speedup over extractor methods at fixed space cost and enables simulated quantum advantage at 11,495 atoms and 15-hour runtime.
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Toward designing workload-aware Surface Code Architectures
A workload-aware surface-code architecture with ancilla-centric patches and T-gate-based floorplanning reduces required data tiles by up to 21% while maintaining near-optimal cycles per instruction and reaching 90% efficiency for 10 concurrent programs.
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Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing with Trapped Ions: The Walking Cat Architecture
A trapped-ion architecture based on LDPC codes and cat-state factories achieves 110 logical qubits and one million T gates per day using 2514 physical qubits, with estimates for Heisenberg model simulation on 100 sites in one month using 10000 qubits.
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Efficient Routing of Quantum LDPC Codes on Programmable 2D Toric Architectures
A programmable 2D toric oscillator network enables efficient routing for bivariate bicycle LDPC codes, reducing long-range couplers to O(sqrt(n)) and achieving 3.06% logical error rate per cycle in simulations for the [[18,4,4]] code.
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O3LS: Optimizing Lattice Surgery via Automatic Layout Searching and Loose Scheduling
O3LS reduces space overhead by up to 46.7% and time overhead by up to 36% in lattice surgery while suppressing logical error rates by up to an order of magnitude compared with prior layout and scheduling approaches.
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When T-Depth Misleads: Predicting Fault-Tolerant Quantum Execution Slowdown under Magic-State Delivery Constraints
Delta_max outperforms T-depth as a predictor of slowdown under magic-state constraints and supplies a tight lower bound on makespan with zero violations across 4,904 test instances.
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Multiplexed cryo-CMOS control of an isolated double quantum dot
Multiplexed cryo-CMOS control enables stable biasing and fast pulsing of an isolated silicon double quantum dot at 0.5 K, supporting deterministic multi-electron loading and resolution of tunneling events across charge transitions.
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Entanglement boosting: Low-volume logical Bell pair preparation for distributed fault-tolerant quantum computation
Entanglement boosting protocol prepares logical Bell pairs in rotated surface codes with orders-of-magnitude lower link-limited volume, reaching 10^{-10} logical error from 86 physical pairs at 1% error using soft decoders and postselection within one patch.
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Dense packing of the surface code: code deformation procedures and hook-error-avoiding gate scheduling
The paper introduces concrete code deformation procedures for dense surface code packing, proposes hook-error-avoiding CNOT scheduling for syndrome extraction, and reports Monte Carlo simulations showing lower logical error rates than standard surface codes at large distances and low physical error,
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Architecting Distributed Quantum Computers: Design Insights from Resource Estimation
A resource estimation framework for distributed fault-tolerant quantum computers based on lattice surgery identifies feasible hardware configurations for eight applications across thousands of setups, showing that architecture design must be guided by resource analysis for scalability.
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Benincasa-Dowker-Glaser causal set actions by quantum counting
Presents an asymptotically optimal Õ(n²)-time quantum algorithm for the BDG causal set action via uniform superposition over causal set encodings and two-stage quantum counting.
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Feasibility of performing quantum chemistry calculations on quantum computers
New criteria reveal VQE needs fault-tolerant quantum computers due to decoherence and QPE has exponentially suppressed success probability from orthogonality catastrophe in classical input states.
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CryoZip: An Efficient Cryogenic Compressor for Quantum Error Correction Syndromes
CryoZip delivers up to 48x compression (1.8x over prior art) and 4-26x energy savings for QEC syndromes in 22 nm FDSOI at 4 K, reaching 14,238x bandwidth reduction and 42x energy savings when paired with a predecoder.
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Stalls and Spequlation: Pipelined Execution for Fault Tolerant Quantum Computation
A pipelined framework with speculation for logical operations in fault-tolerant quantum computation reduces total pipeline steps by 20-40% on benchmarks by overlapping control, execution, and decoding stages.
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Hardware-Tailored Resource Estimation for Magic-State Distillation on Silicon Spin Qubits
Resource estimation for magic-state distillation on silicon spin qubits finds 42% overhead reduction via optimized pulses and ~3x physical footprint reduction with biased codes versus surface code.
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Sub-kelvin thermal conductivity of substrates and on-chip routing in quantum integrated systems
High-resistivity silicon shows the highest thermal conductivity at 300 mK among tested substrates, and Nb routing lines increase in-plane conductance but leave the substrate as the dominant heat path.
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Integration and Resource Estimation of Cryoelectronics for Superconducting Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computers
This review surveys cryogenic electronics approaches for superconducting FTQCs and introduces a first-order resource estimation framework benchmarked on RSA-2048 scale.
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Fault-tolerant interfaces for modular quantum computing on diverse qubit platforms
Comparative analysis of fault-tolerant interfaces for modular quantum computing using surface codes, including novel grow-and-distil protocols, to determine optimal strategies across hardware parameters for low logical error rates.
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Quasi-Monte Carlo Method for Linear Combination Unitaries via Classical Post-Processing
Quasi-Monte Carlo integration in LCU-CPP produces lower errors than Monte Carlo or trapezoidal rules for quantum operator estimation in two numerical experiments.
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Managing Classical Processing Requirements for Quantum Error Correction
A two-level decoder scheduling framework reduces classical processing requirements for quantum error correction by 10-40% on fault-tolerant benchmarks by managing bursty workloads as shared resources.
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A Quantum Reservoir Computing Approach to Quantum Stock Movement Forecasting in Quantum-Invested Markets
A six-qubit quantum reservoir achieves over 86% accuracy in classifying stock trend movements for quantum-sector companies using daily and intraday volume data.
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The Role of Quantum Computing in Advancing Scientific High-Performance Computing: A perspective from the ADAC Institute
A synthesis of expert insights from the ADAC Quantum Computing Working Group and member survey on the complementary roles of quantum and classical high-performance computing in future hybrid infrastructures.
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CMOS compatibility of semiconductor spin qubits
Review of CMOS compatibility advantages and challenges for semiconductor spin qubits aimed at enabling large-scale fault-tolerant quantum computing.
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Quantum computing with Qiskit
Qiskit is an open-source SDK that supports quantum circuit design, optimization at multiple abstraction levels, execution on hardware, and dynamic quantum-classical computations.
- Mitigating Classical Resource Costs in Quantum Error Correction via Generalized qLDPC Predecoding