Vision-language-action models are highly vulnerable to membership inference attacks, including practical black-box versions that exploit generated actions and motion trajectories.
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RT-2: Vision-Language-Action Models Transfer Web Knowledge to Robotic Control
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abstract
We study how vision-language models trained on Internet-scale data can be incorporated directly into end-to-end robotic control to boost generalization and enable emergent semantic reasoning. Our goal is to enable a single end-to-end trained model to both learn to map robot observations to actions and enjoy the benefits of large-scale pretraining on language and vision-language data from the web. To this end, we propose to co-fine-tune state-of-the-art vision-language models on both robotic trajectory data and Internet-scale vision-language tasks, such as visual question answering. In contrast to other approaches, we propose a simple, general recipe to achieve this goal: in order to fit both natural language responses and robotic actions into the same format, we express the actions as text tokens and incorporate them directly into the training set of the model in the same way as natural language tokens. We refer to such category of models as vision-language-action models (VLA) and instantiate an example of such a model, which we call RT-2. Our extensive evaluation (6k evaluation trials) shows that our approach leads to performant robotic policies and enables RT-2 to obtain a range of emergent capabilities from Internet-scale training. This includes significantly improved generalization to novel objects, the ability to interpret commands not present in the robot training data (such as placing an object onto a particular number or icon), and the ability to perform rudimentary reasoning in response to user commands (such as picking up the smallest or largest object, or the one closest to another object). We further show that incorporating chain of thought reasoning allows RT-2 to perform multi-stage semantic reasoning, for example figuring out which object to pick up for use as an improvised hammer (a rock), or which type of drink is best suited for someone who is tired (an energy drink).
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- abstract We study how vision-language models trained on Internet-scale data can be incorporated directly into end-to-end robotic control to boost generalization and enable emergent semantic reasoning. Our goal is to enable a single end-to-end trained model to both learn to map robot observations to actions and enjoy the benefits of large-scale pretraining on language and vision-language data from the web. To this end, we propose to co-fine-tune state-of-the-art vision-language models on both robotic trajectory data and Internet-scale vision-language tasks, such as visual question answering. In contrast
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representative citing papers
OSWorld provides the first unified real-computer benchmark for open-ended multimodal agent tasks, exposing large performance gaps between humans and state-of-the-art LLM/VLM agents.
Labimus is the first benchmark for humanoid dexterous manipulation in organic chemistry laboratories, exposing a gap between task completion and required experimental precision.
LIBERO-Safety supplies a scalable benchmark, data-generation pipeline, and 19,664-demonstration dataset that exposes a generalization-safety tension in current VLA models where diverse training improves collision avoidance but task success stays limited by trajectory quality and semantic understandi
RoboGaze presents a structured multi-agent VLM pipeline and robotics-specific error taxonomy that improves video evaluation metrics by up to 43 F1 points over zero-shot baselines on a 382-clip dataset.
World models introduce a stealthy poisoning vector into robot learning pipelines where malicious prompts or dynamics in teleoperated data activate only during synthetic trajectory generation, enabling backdoors in downstream policies.
ActProbe is an action-space detector that uses temporal consistency error and action chunk magnitude from policy outputs, mapped via LSTM-MLP, to predict failures earlier than baselines across policies and real-robot tasks.
WIZARD meta-learns to map task evidence directly to LoRA updates for VLA policies, reporting up to 14x gains on unseen tasks in simulation and real-robot experiments without test-time optimization or action labels.
NextMotionQA benchmark reveals VLMs have critical gaps in fine-grained human motion understanding and align with experts on coarse judgment (κ=0.70) but not fine-grained (κ=0.10).
The paper identifies a deployment safety gap in VLA policies where identical checkpoints can be executable-inequivalent due to action metadata mismatches, supported by a derived closed-form transform and empirical drift measurements on LIBERO benchmarks.
TTT-VLA performs test-time training for VLA models by optimizing only a latent prompt on new interaction data via a proxy self-supervised signal, yielding higher task success rates on SimplerEnv in single- and multi-embodiment settings.
BOKBO is the first conformal abstention method for K-sample VLA policies that supplies finite-sample distribution-free guarantees on executed violation rates, with global and Mondrian per-task variants.
PhAIL provides an open benchmark and distributional evaluation method for real-robot VLA policies using time-to-success CDF, HRT scoring, and KS significance tests.
VLA architectures exhibit architecture-specific failure signatures at the motor-command level, with direction reversal as a universal predictor and velocity monitoring ineffective for continuous models.
Introduces Colosseum V2 benchmark for evaluating VLA model generalization in robotic manipulation with 28 tasks, revealing limitations in current methods and sim-real correlations.
Introduces MM-CreativityBench for affordance-grounded creative tool use and shows that DPO-based alignment with an affordance knowledge base improves entity and part selection while cutting hallucination errors in LMMs.
Visual CoT agents exhibit tool-use collapse where tool usage declines but task accuracy rises, and adding entropy regularization for rollout diversity produces the strongest performance.
CrossVLA develops a surrogate log-probability estimator for DPO on flow-matching VLAs, shows DoRA outperforming LoRA by +10.4 pp mean on LIBERO, and identifies inference bottlenecks with limited caching gains.
Demo-JEPA enables one-shot cross-embodiment imitation by mapping visual demonstrations to shared latent future trajectories that serve as subgoals for the target agent's own forward dynamics planning.
DSSP is a history-conditioned diffusion state space policy that uses SSMs to encode full observation streams with an auxiliary dynamics objective and hierarchical fusion, achieving SOTA results with reduced model size in robot manipulation.
A new VLA model called SI uses a four-step chain-of-thought to derive driving intent and applies it via classifier-free guidance to a flow-matching trajectory generator, showing competitive Waymo scores and intent-controllable plans.
A liveness-based Bellman operator enables conservative offline policy evaluation for manipulation tasks by encoding task progression and reducing truncation bias from finite horizons.
Pace-and-Path Correction decomposes a quadratic cost minimization into orthogonal pace and path channels to correct chunked actions in VLA models, raising success rates by up to 28.8% in dynamic settings.
SABER provides 44.8K multi-representation action samples from unscripted retail environments that raise a VLA model's mean success rate on ten manipulation tasks from 13.4% to 29.3%.
citing papers explorer
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Membership Inference Attacks on Vision-Language-Action Models
Vision-language-action models are highly vulnerable to membership inference attacks, including practical black-box versions that exploit generated actions and motion trajectories.
-
OSWorld: Benchmarking Multimodal Agents for Open-Ended Tasks in Real Computer Environments
OSWorld provides the first unified real-computer benchmark for open-ended multimodal agent tasks, exposing large performance gaps between humans and state-of-the-art LLM/VLM agents.
-
Labimus: A Simulation and Benchmark for Humanoid Dexterous Manipulation in Chemical Laboratory
Labimus is the first benchmark for humanoid dexterous manipulation in organic chemistry laboratories, exposing a gap between task completion and required experimental precision.
-
LIBERO-Safety: A Comprehensive Benchmark for Physical and Semantic Safety in Vision-Language-Action Models
LIBERO-Safety supplies a scalable benchmark, data-generation pipeline, and 19,664-demonstration dataset that exposes a generalization-safety tension in current VLA models where diverse training improves collision avoidance but task success stays limited by trajectory quality and semantic understandi
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RoboGaze: Evaluating Robot World Models via Structured Vision-Language Analysis
RoboGaze presents a structured multi-agent VLM pipeline and robotics-specific error taxonomy that improves video evaluation metrics by up to 43 F1 points over zero-shot baselines on a 382-clip dataset.
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Targeting World Models to Compromise Robot Learning Pipelines
World models introduce a stealthy poisoning vector into robot learning pipelines where malicious prompts or dynamics in teleoperated data activate only during synthetic trajectory generation, enabling backdoors in downstream policies.
-
ActProbe: Action-Space Probe for Early Failure Detection of Generative Robot Policies
ActProbe is an action-space detector that uses temporal consistency error and action chunk magnitude from policy outputs, mapped via LSTM-MLP, to predict failures earlier than baselines across policies and real-robot tasks.
-
Robotic Policy Adaptation via Weight-Space Meta-Learning
WIZARD meta-learns to map task evidence directly to LoRA updates for VLA policies, reporting up to 14x gains on unseen tasks in simulation and real-robot experiments without test-time optimization or action labels.
-
NextMotionQA: Benchmarking and Judging Human Motion Understanding with Vision-Language Models
NextMotionQA benchmark reveals VLMs have critical gaps in fine-grained human motion understanding and align with experts on coarse judgment (κ=0.70) but not fine-grained (κ=0.10).
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Same Weights, Different Robot: A Deployment Safety View of VLA Policies
The paper identifies a deployment safety gap in VLA policies where identical checkpoints can be executable-inequivalent due to action metadata mismatches, supported by a derived closed-form transform and empirical drift measurements on LIBERO benchmarks.
-
TTT-VLA: Test-Time Latent Prompt Optimization for Vision-Language-Action Models
TTT-VLA performs test-time training for VLA models by optimizing only a latent prompt on new interaction data via a proxy self-supervised signal, yielding higher task success rates on SimplerEnv in single- and multi-embodiment settings.
-
BOKBO (Best of K Bad Options): Calibrated Abstention for VLA Policies
BOKBO is the first conformal abstention method for K-sample VLA policies that supplies finite-sample distribution-free guarantees on executed violation rates, with global and Mondrian per-task variants.
-
PhAIL: A Real-Robot VLA Benchmark and Distributional Methodology
PhAIL provides an open benchmark and distributional evaluation method for real-robot VLA policies using time-to-success CDF, HRT scoring, and KS significance tests.
-
How VLAs Fail Differently: Black-Box Action Monitoring Reveals Architecture-Specific Failure Signatures
VLA architectures exhibit architecture-specific failure signatures at the motor-command level, with direction reversal as a universal predictor and velocity monitoring ineffective for continuous models.
-
Colosseum V2: Benchmarking Generalization for Vision Language Action Models
Introduces Colosseum V2 benchmark for evaluating VLA model generalization in robotic manipulation with 28 tasks, revealing limitations in current methods and sim-real correlations.
-
Advancing Creative Physical Intelligence in Large Multimodal Models
Introduces MM-CreativityBench for affordance-grounded creative tool use and shows that DPO-based alignment with an affordance knowledge base improves entity and part selection while cutting hallucination errors in LMMs.
-
Diversity Over Frequency: Rethinking Tool Use in Visual Chain-of-Thought Agents
Visual CoT agents exhibit tool-use collapse where tool usage declines but task accuracy rises, and adding entropy regularization for rollout diversity produces the strongest performance.
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CrossVLA: Cross-Paradigm Post-Training and Inference Optimization for Vision-Language-Action Models
CrossVLA develops a surrogate log-probability estimator for DPO on flow-matching VLAs, shows DoRA outperforming LoRA by +10.4 pp mean on LIBERO, and identifies inference bottlenecks with limited caching gains.
-
Demo-JEPA: Joint-Embedding Predictive Architecture for One-shot Cross-Embodiment Imitation
Demo-JEPA enables one-shot cross-embodiment imitation by mapping visual demonstrations to shared latent future trajectories that serve as subgoals for the target agent's own forward dynamics planning.
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DSSP: Diffusion State Space Policy with Full-History Encoding
DSSP is a history-conditioned diffusion state space policy that uses SSMs to encode full observation streams with an auxiliary dynamics objective and hierarchical fusion, achieving SOTA results with reduced model size in robot manipulation.
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Action Emergence from Streaming Intent
A new VLA model called SI uses a four-step chain-of-thought to derive driving intent and applies it via classifier-free guidance to a flow-matching trajectory generator, showing competitive Waymo scores and intent-controllable plans.
-
Offline Policy Evaluation for Manipulation Policies via Discounted Liveness Formulation
A liveness-based Bellman operator enables conservative offline policy evaluation for manipulation tasks by encoding task progression and reducing truncation bias from finite horizons.
-
Overcoming Dynamics-Blindness: Training-Free Pace-and-Path Correction for VLA Models
Pace-and-Path Correction decomposes a quadratic cost minimization into orthogonal pace and path channels to correct chunked actions in VLA models, raising success rates by up to 28.8% in dynamic settings.
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SABER: A Scalable Action-Based Embodied Dataset for Real-World VLA Adaptation
SABER provides 44.8K multi-representation action samples from unscripted retail environments that raise a VLA model's mean success rate on ten manipulation tasks from 13.4% to 29.3%.
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OA-WAM: Object-Addressable World Action Model for Robust Robot Manipulation
OA-WAM uses persistent address vectors and dynamic content vectors in object slots to enable addressable world-action prediction, improving robustness on manipulation benchmarks under scene changes.
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Atomic-Probe Governance for Skill Updates in Compositional Robot Policies
A cross-version swap protocol reveals dominant skills that swing composition success by up to 50 percentage points, and an atomic probe with selective revalidation governs updates at lower cost than always re-testing full compositions.
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CF-VLA: Efficient Coarse-to-Fine Action Generation for Vision-Language-Action Policies
CF-VLA uses a coarse initialization over endpoint velocity followed by single-step refinement to achieve strong performance with low inference steps on CALVIN, LIBERO, and real-robot tasks.
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Mask World Model: Predicting What Matters for Robust Robot Policy Learning
Mask World Model predicts semantic mask dynamics with video diffusion and integrates it with a diffusion policy head, outperforming RGB world models on LIBERO and RLBench while showing better real-world generalization and texture robustness.
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AeroBridge-TTA: Test-Time Adaptive Language-Conditioned Control for UAVs
AeroBridge-TTA achieves +22 pt average gains on out-of-distribution UAV dynamics mismatches by updating a latent state online from observed transitions in a language-conditioned policy.
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BiCoord: A Bimanual Manipulation Benchmark towards Long-Horizon Spatial-Temporal Coordination
BiCoord is a new benchmark for long-horizon tightly coordinated bimanual manipulation that includes quantitative metrics and shows existing policies like DP, RDT, Pi0 and OpenVLA-OFT struggle on such tasks.
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VP-VLA: Visual Prompting as an Interface for Vision-Language-Action Models
VP-VLA decouples high-level reasoning from low-level control in VLA models by rendering spatial anchors as visual prompts directly in the RGB observation space, outperforming end-to-end baselines.
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VLN-Cache: Enabling Token Caching for VLN Models with Visual/Semantic Dynamics Awareness
VLN-Cache delivers up to 1.52x faster inference in VLN models by using view-aligned remapping for geometric consistency and a task-relevance saliency filter to manage semantic changes during navigation.
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PhysMem: Scaling Test-Time Memory for Embodied Physical Reasoning
PhysMem enables VLM-based robot planners to learn and verify physical properties through test-time interaction and hypothesis testing, raising success on a brick insertion task from 23% to 76%.
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UniLACT: Depth-Aware RGB Latent Action Learning for Vision-Language-Action Models
UniLACT improves VLA models by adding depth-aware unified latent action pretraining that outperforms RGB-only baselines on seen and unseen manipulation tasks.
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ST-BiBench: Benchmarking Multi-Stream Multimodal Coordination in Bimanual Embodied Tasks for MLLMs
ST-BiBench reveals a coordination paradox in which MLLMs show strong high-level strategic reasoning yet fail at fine-grained 16-dimensional bimanual action synthesis and multi-stream fusion.
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Large Video Planner Enables Generalizable Robot Control
A video foundation model trained on human demonstrations generates zero-shot plans that convert to executable robot actions on novel scenes and tasks.
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Preemptive Solving of Future Problems: Multitask Preplay in Humans and Machines
Multitask Preplay replays experience from pursued tasks as starting points for counterfactual simulation of unpursued tasks to learn predictive representations that support fast generalization in humans and machines.
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DreamGen: Unlocking Generalization in Robot Learning through Video World Models
DreamGen trains robot policies on synthetic trajectories from adapted video world models, enabling a humanoid robot to perform 22 new behaviors in seen and unseen environments from a single pick-and-place teleoperation dataset.
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VLAs are Confined yet Capable of Generalizing to Novel Instructions
Averaging and temporally interpolating text latents in VLAs enables 83% success on novel task combinations in the libero-ood benchmark where SOTA models achieve under 15%.
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AlphaDrive: Unleashing the Power of VLMs in Autonomous Driving via Reinforcement Learning and Reasoning
AlphaDrive uses GRPO-based RL rewards and two-stage SFT+RL training on VLMs to improve autonomous driving planning performance and efficiency while producing emergent multimodal capabilities.
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Kaiwu: A Multimodal Manipulation Dataset and Framework for Robot Learning and Human-Robot Interaction
Introduces the Kaiwu multimodal dataset and framework with 11,664 synchronized assembling demonstrations including hand motions, pressures, sounds, multi-view videos, motion capture, eye gaze, and EMG signals with timestamp-based and semantic annotations.
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ReKep: Spatio-Temporal Reasoning of Relational Keypoint Constraints for Robotic Manipulation
ReKep encodes robotic tasks as optimizable Python functions over 3D keypoints that are generated automatically from language and RGB-D input, enabling real-time hierarchical planning on single- and dual-arm platforms without task-specific data.
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3D-VLA: A 3D Vision-Language-Action Generative World Model
3D-VLA is a new embodied foundation model that uses a 3D LLM plus aligned diffusion models to generate future images and point clouds for improved reasoning and action planning in 3D environments.
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RT-H: Action Hierarchies Using Language
RT-H learns robot policies by first predicting language motions as an intermediate representation and then mapping those plus the high-level task to actions, yielding more robust multi-task performance and the ability to learn from language interventions.
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Zero-Shot Robotic Manipulation with Pretrained Image-Editing Diffusion Models
SuSIE uses a finetuned InstructPix2Pix diffusion model to propose subgoal images that guide a low-level goal-conditioned policy, achieving SOTA zero-shot performance on CALVIN and real-world manipulation.
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Open X-Embodiment: Robotic Learning Datasets and RT-X Models
A collaborative dataset spanning 22 robots and 527 skills enables RT-X models that transfer capabilities across different robot embodiments.
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Learning Interactive Real-World Simulators
UniSim learns a universal real-world simulator from orchestrated diverse datasets, enabling zero-shot deployment of policies trained purely in simulation.
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ABot-M0.5: Unified Mobility-and-Manipulation World Action Model
ABot-M0.5 proposes a unified mobility-and-manipulation world action model using three alignment strategies that achieves state-of-the-art performance on mobile and fine-grained manipulation benchmarks.
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Agentic RAG-VLM: Affordance-Aware Retrieval-Augmented Generation with Self-Reflective Planning for Robotic Grasping
Agentic RAG-VLM achieves 78.3% success on a 12-task grasping benchmark with 360 trials per configuration, a 53.3 percentage-point gain over VLM-only baselines, via hierarchical affordance RAG, scene graph constraints, and a 14-type failure taxonomy with adaptive retry.
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The Speedup Paradox: Rethinking Inference Speed-Quality Trade-off in Embodied Tasks
TISED decomposes inference optimization effects on embodied tasks and identifies paradoxical outcomes where faster per-step inference can increase task completion time on static tasks or raise success rates on dynamic tasks.